The widow's offering

The widow's offering

41 Jesus sat down opposite the place where the offerings were put and watched the crowd putting their money into the temple treasury.

Sunday Sermons

 God speaks through Gospels where He expresses His divine will to human beings.  Before we start reading any biblical passage, our minds must be first conceived of the biblical, geographical, historical and theological background which will help us understand the passage meaningfully taking into consideration each and every aspect. Then only the true meaning will be brought forth.

            Today’s Gospel is taken from the Gospel of St. Mathew 25:14-30

THE ICONOGRAPHY OF LORD ḲṚṢṆA

HINDUISM:

THE ICONOGRAPHY OF LORD ḲṚṢṆA

கி ரு ஷ் ணா, க ண் ண ன் 

Man is a rational animal who found it difficult at a point to control some natural events and eventually fell into the submission of nature and personified it with his same rational interpretation. He developed his spiritual substance into an organized orderly system which he called ‘Religion’ from where onwards his inborn quest continues with acceleration to know the Divine.

Therefore his attempt to a lively actualization of ‘God’ brought forth symbolic or iconographical interpretation along with the sculptural and portrayal depiction or exposition of the above. Hinduism has been highly compared with this concept, of which this discussion goes, for the reason that it still has the original attempt of man in personification of his spiritual entity. For the naive view, this many-god religion never fails to give sufficient information or rather description to all its gods through iconography.

Lord Krishna, one among the many Avatārs of Lord Vishnu who was an emitted prince of Kamsa was brought up by the leader of a cowherd.  He later killed his father with Balarāman his step- brother and obtained the kingship in Dvārakā.  He was a divinized person who met with an actual death in his last phase of life.  But, however on his insistence, the pastoral community was converted from Indra worship into Vaisnavism and added to that for his triumphant rule he was believed to be an Avatār.  All his life was written down and put in art and sculpture describing his nature through the iconographical explanation.  There many forms of symbolic expression namely, diagrammatical and emblematic, pictorial, gestural and physical movements, verbal, musical, conjunction and combination of various modes.

            The iconography of Krishnā can be defined in many ways in accordance to the artist who makes it with the intention of expressing something.  In that way nature takes a prominent place.  Krishnā is depicted as a child, showing his opened mouth in which the whole universe is seen. This is connected to an event happened during his childhood that tries to say that the whole universe was created by Vishnu and he controls the ‘time’; Lord Shiva destroys the world once the circle is over whereas Vishnu becomes the cause of re-creation by first bringing forth Brahmā, the creator god.  It also reminds of his another famous Avatār,  Vāmana who measured the whole three worlds with only three steps (Satapatha Brāhmana xiv, 1,1,6).  In another form he is depicted as a boy who stands on the top of a poly headed snake in water.  Water (Āpah)  is an integral reality, therefore, has healing power (Cf. RV x, 137,6; AV ii,3,6; vi,91,3; SB iii,6,1,7)Purification is their first anthropocosmic function.

            Another point of discussion would be the human relationship which is mostly the family bonds such as mother and child and father and child. These portrayals try to explain the relationship or intimacy between God and man that is done with one depiction showing Yashodā holding child Krishnā. The mother image is closely bound up with Earth symbolism, vegetation, agriculture, fertility, the reappearance of life and the lunar cycle. The image of the child, the subject, or slave again indicate man’s relationship to God; the image of the ruler (Encyclopaedia Brittanica, macropaedia, vol. 17, 15^th edition, pp 908).  Therefore the above expression is found in that image.

The next on the topic is the unavoidable part of human life, the sexuality which also has been used to carry message.  Lord Krishnā is seemed to be a mischievous man in his youth who plays fool with gopis, the girls of the pastoral community. Some pictures show naked gopis who are having bath while Krishna refused to give the cloths to them.  These try to say the analogy between divine love and human love. Divine lover is shown playing the flute, surrounded by adoring maidens and cows. People must be attracted towards god having genuine love for him as it is shown.  Vaisnavite theology brings forth this idea that we also find in saivism in the formless form of Shivalingam (Linga-Yoni symbolism) which is the complete power results in the combination of Shiva and Shakthi and the same was done with Krishna and Rādhā.  Here, the cow is seen in most of the images and sculptures standing for prosperity because, the cow is considered a god called Kāmadhēnu that is in Dhēvalokha. The animal form is the representation of Divine (theriomorphism, or zoomorphism).  

            Culture also influences the formation of iconography for the reason that the artist is already influenced by it. This can be evidently seen in the images of Krishnā in which he is depicted as a child dances on the snake and so on. The people of the pastoral community were in fear of fearful animals so that, he is seen as it is said above and also cow is mostly shown because that was their bread winning job. Hunters, farmers, shepherds, artisans and merchants and their activities are represented in religious pictures and appear in verbal symbolism of religion (Encyclopaedia Brittanica, macropaedia, vol. 17, 15^th edition, pp 908).

            Conceptual influences are widely seen in the incorporation of ideas, theories and structured system of thought into images. The conflict with Indra worship is substituted by Vaisnavite theological inputs which are shown in the image depicting child Krishna showing the universe in his mouth. Krishnā as he preaches the Gitā is the best example for this in which he is shown as the protector and preacher of Dharma giving instructions to Arjun. It is an example also for the Chrematomorphic motifs that places holy books or scriptures and objects.

Though the images and sculptures are apparently normal they have a treasured meaning with them in their iconography. These religious concepts have been abbreviated in the iconography of pictures and simplified to be given to the people with a message to say.  Krishanā was a triumphant king and a good human being whereas the divinization of this King initiated a new branch of Hinduism called Krishnaism still followed by North Indians and the same happened with King Rama. Krishna was just a reformer or rather a new god who changed the Indra-dominated Vedic religion among the pastoral community into Vaisnavism.  His life is fully narrated in Bhāgavata Purāna but not much in Vedas. All his images bring some news or specific interpretations with them and all of them are mostly hybrid motifs.  It is the core of this codification that the people who look at the work god experience is given. Therefore Krishna’s iconography becomes useful in order to understand him better.

-An Assignment submitted to REVD. FR. DEVIN COONGHE IVD

க ணே ஷ ன் 

Ganesa is a very popular and certainly the most universal member of the Hindu pantheon. Every worshipping Hindu, regardless of his theistic affiliations, pays homage to this deity. 

Krishna கி ருஷ் ணா 

Krishna (कृष्ण in Devanagari, kṛṣṇa in IAST, pronounced [ˈkr̩ʂɳə] in classical Sanskrit) is a deity worshiped across many traditions of Hinduism.

Krishna is often described as a dark-skinned man during his earthly descent, often depicted as a baby, as a young boy playing a flute as in the Bhagavata Purana, or as a youthful prince giving philosophical direction and guidance as in the Bhagavad Gita.

GERUND AND GERUNDIVE
I. The Gerund
The Gerund is a verbal noun, always active in force. The infintive of the verbs supplies
the nominative case:
Legere est difficile = To read is difficult (reading is difficult)
The other cases are formed by adding -nd- to the present stem of the verb (-iend- for
3rd conjugation I-stems and all 4th conjugation verbs), plus the neuter singular endings
of the second declension. The Gerund has no plural.
A. Declension of Gerund:
(Nom.legere reading)
Gen. legendi of reading
Dat. legendo to/for reading
Acc. legendum reading
Abl. legendo from/with/in/by reading
B. Gerund as simple noun: The Gerund funtions in grammatical cases like any other
noun; but it retains its verbal force and may control a direct object or be modified by an
adverb:
Cupidus legendi est. He is desirous of reading. Obj. Gen.
Legendo discimus. We learn by (means of) reading. Abl. of Means
Regi libenter parendo* By obeying the king willingly, Abl. of Means
fortiores fiemus. we shall become stronger.
* Note that verbs governing the dative will do so in the gerund form as well.
C. Gerund with ad to express purpose:
Ad + the gerund will express purpose:
Ad legendum venit. He comes for the purpose of reading (to read).
But where a direct object is used, the gerundive is preferred.
D. Gerund with causa to express purpose:
The genitive of the gerund followed by causa will express purpose:
Legendi causa venit. He comes for the sake of reading (to read).
But where a direct object is used, the gerundive is preferred.
II. The Gerundive (Future Passive Participle)
The Gerundive is a verbal adjective and is always passive in force. It is formed by adding
-ndus, -a, -um (-iendus, -a, -um with I-stems and 4th conjugation verbs) to the stem of the
verb. It declines like a lst and 2nd declension adjective.
A. Gerundive as simple adjective:
The Gerundive carries a notion of necessity, obligation or propriety and can be used
(like any adjective) in simple agreement with its noun:
Libros legendos habeo. I have books having to be read (that
must be/should be read).
Fortis et laudandus vir est. He is a brave man and worthy to be praised.
Iniuria et non ferenda facta est. An injury not to be borne has been done.
B. Gerundive with Direct Object:
The Gerundive is always preferred over the Gerund where a direct object in the accusative
case is involved:
Libris legendis discimus. We learn by books being read (by
reading books).
Cupidus librorum legendorum est. He is desirous of books being read (of
reading books).
C. Gerundive with ad + acc. and gen. + causa to express purpose:
The Gerundive (like the Gerund) may be used with ad + acc. or gen. + causa to express
purpose. This is the regular construction where a Direct Object is involved.
Librorum legendorum causa venit. He comes for the sake of books being read (to
read books).
Ad libros legendos venit. He comes for the purpose of books being read
(to read books).
D. The Passive Periphrastic Conjugation:
Finally, the gerundive is used with sum in the Future Passive Periphrastic Conjugation.
Here, also, there is always a notion of necessity, obligation, or propriety. The
construction is passive; and the gerundive will agree (number, case, and gender) with
the subject of the sentence. Since the gerundive here functions in a verbal setting,
agreeing with the subject of the sentence, the case will always be nominative (or
accusative in indirect speech).
Carthago delenda est. Carthage must (should) be destroyed.
Nautae videndi sunt. The sailors must be seen.
Dative of Agent with Passive Periphrastic:
If the agent of the action is expressed, the dative case is used:
Carthago nobis delenda est. Carthage must be destroyed by us.
Nautae videndi sunt tibi. The sailors must be seen by you.

Italian meets the fourth dimension: tense and time
1. Introduction
2. Past conditional
3. Back to the future
4. Past tenses in narration: an empirical study
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Habitual action use of the imperfetto
4.3. Scene-setting
4.4. Scene-framing
4.5. \Fu" or \era"?
4.6. Relativity theory: expressing simultaneity
4.7. In the eye of the beholder: the remote, the recent, the present
4.8. Ex post facto: the ordering of events
4.9. Semantic mutations
1 Introduction
Most European languages (all, as far as I know) use speci c verb \tenses" to distinguish past,
present and future. However, the tenses don't match as neatly with the times as one might
hope. Both English and Italian, for example, frequently use the present tense to indicate
future events. Both languages even use the past tense to indicate the future, although not
in the same way, and Italian can use the future tense to indicate the past (see \Back to the
future" below). And then there is the peculiar English use of the present progressive for the
future, made even more peculiar when it incorporates \to go" (e.g. the self-contradictory
\tomorrow I'm going to stay in bed"). In any case, the obvious corollary is that the tenses
of the two languages usually don't align neatly with each other. In this chapter I'll consider
some of the more interesting ways in which time and tense di er.
It seems to be generally true that the past tense has the greatest variation from language
to language. In Hungarian, for example, there is essentially only one past tense, and I've
been told that the many past tenses in English are confusing to Hungarians. English speakers
have a similar di culty with Italian, which has variants of the past tense that either don't
exist at all in English, or correlate inconsistently with their English counterparts. The
most obvious example is the distinction between passato remoto and passato prossimo in
Italian, a dichotomy which has no analog in English, but this isn't the hard case. The
trickiest by far is the choice between passato remoto and imperfetto (mainly in writing), or
equivalently between passato prossimo and imperfetto (mainly in speech). The trouble is
that the imperfetto corresponds to at least four di erent constructions in English: depending
on the context. For instance dormiva could be used in the Italian equivalents of \he slept",
\he was sleeping", \in those days he would sleep until noon", or \I saw a cat sleeping in the
middle of the road." (In the last case \un gatto che dormiva"; in a sense English useage no.
4 is equivalent to no. 2, except that we are lazy and contract \a cat that was sleeping" to
\a cat sleeping". This can't be done in Italian; see below.)
1
In any case, I nd the system of (passato remoto) + (imperfetto) quite elegant and
indeed it's probably my second favorite part of Italian grammar, after the subjunctive. For
this reason, the bulk of this chapter is devoted to analyzing the puzzle of passato remoto
versus imperfetto, especially the cases in which both would be translated by the simple past
in English. This two-to-one mapping causes little trouble in reading, but to write you have
to invert it, and therein lies the challenge.
Other topics considered include expressing the simultaneity of events, the order of events
(after X, then Y) and certain cases|dubbed \semantic mutations"|where the imperfetto
and passato remoto/prossimo di er in meaning as well as in time.
2 Past conditional
One of the most striking features of Italian is that it uses the past conditional where the
other Romance languages would use the present conditional, as does English. Neither French,
Spanish, Portuguese nor Romanian follow the Italian system. Since the di erence can lead to
considerable confusion, it ought to be pointed out forcefully in textbooks. To date, however,
[Maiden-Robustelli] is the only source I've found that gives it the emphasis it deserves,
putting it on page 1 of their chapter on \uses of the verb forms". Here's a typical example,
from the short story I poveri by Carlo Cassola:
La signorina promise che ci avrebbe messo uno buona parola.
In English this would be translated with the present conditional: \The signorina promised
that she would put in a good word." But Italian uses the past conditional: literally,
\promised that she would have put in a good word". Another example from La bella estate:
Si lasciarono cos male che si capiva che Amelia non gliel'avrebbe perdonata. Ma Ginia
che da principio alz o le spalle, un bel momento ebbe paura all'idea che Amelia l'avrebbe presa
in giro con Guido e Rodrigues...
\They parted on such bad terms that it was clear Amelia wouldn't forgive her [literally,
would not have forgiven her]. At rst Ginia shrugged it o , then for a moment panicked at
the thought that Amelia would make fun of her [literally, would have made fun of her] with
Guido and Rodrigues..."
In certain constructions the past tense occurs in English, but without the \would". The
following is from the short story I passi sulla neve by Mario Soldati (where in this case I've
borrowed the translation from [Trevelyan]; see the book reviews):
Passeggi o sotto i portici senza proporsi una meta. Quando si sarebbe sentito stanco,
sarebbe entrato in un ca e: ecco tutto. Ma tornare in albergo, rivedere sua moglie, no, non
ancora.
\He strolled aimlessly along under the arcades. When he felt tired he would turn into a
caf e: that was it. But to go back to the hotel and see his wife again|no, not yet." Literally:
\When he would have felt tired he would have entered a caf e".
2
The confusion (for English speakers) is compounded in the past conditional form of the
periodo ipotetico, i.e. se + Congiuntivo Trapassato + Condizionale Composto, which has
three di erent interpretations depending on the context. The rst runs exactly parallel to
English, as in the following from I passi sulla neve:
Se non fosse stato per le musiche, i canti, le risate, le berciate e gli applausi che venivano
dai televisori delle case lungo le quali stava camminando, avrebbe pensato di attraversare un
paese abbandonato.
\If it hadn't been for the music, the songs, the laughter, the bawling and the applause
coming from the televisions of the houses next to which he was walking, he would have
thought he was passing through an abandoned village."
However, the same form is also used where English would again use the present condi-
tional. An example from L'eretico by Carlo Martigli:
Non era un caso che gli fosse toccato il nome Cesare, un nome cui avrebbe dato nuovo
lustro. Sarebbe stato Cesare non solo di nome ma anche di fatto. Un giorno, se fosse stato
necessario, avrebbe varcato il Rubicone.
\It wasn't by chance that he had been named Caesar, a name to which he would give
new glory. He would be Caesar not only in name but also in fact. One day, if it should prove
necessary, he would cross the Rubicon."
Note that the literal translation e.g. (*) \if it had been necessary, he would have crossed
the Rubicon" changes the meaning completely. The interesting point is that the Italian can
also be interpreted this way. In another context, se fosse stato necessario, avrebbe varcato
il Rubicone could in fact be translated by (*) above. In the present context, however, it is
clear that the nefarious Cesare is imagining his future rise to power.
Surprisingly, the past form above can also be used for the future. According to a textbook
example, one can say:
Se domani avessi potuto, sarei venuto to mean \If I could come tomorrow, I would".
Literally, \If tomorrow I could have, I would have come".
In any case, every Italian textbook|at least those written with speakers of English or
of other Romance languages in mind|ought to emphasize the divergent uses of the past
conditional.
3 Back to the future
As in English, the present tense is often used in place of the future, if the future aspect
is already understood: \Tomorrow we go to the zoo" or Domani andiamo allo zoo. One
peculiar feature of English is the use of the present progressive \to go" for future actions:
\tomorrow we're going to the zoo", the redundant \tomorrow we're going to go to the zoo",
or even the illogical \tomorrow we're going to clean the house" (in which case we're not
going anywhere). As far as I know, the Italian present progressive stare + gerund is never
used in this way.
3
Most strikingly, Italian uses the future perfect (future auxiliary + past participle) to
indicate conjectural past events, as in avranno perso il treno e.g. as a response to someone
failing to show up for a meeting. In English this could be variously translated as \they
must have missed the train", `they probably missed the train" and so on. At any rate the
logical structure is clear, and makes sense: \They will have missed the train" is short for
\In the future, when we nd out what happened, it will probably turn out that they missed
the train." On the other hand, there is no one systematic way to translate this useage into
English. Consider the following example from Il sentiero dei nidi di ragno by Calvino, with
ve occurences of the future perfect (Pin is a young boy who has fallen in with an anti-fascist
partisan nicknamed \Red Wolf"):
Pin si scuote di soprassalto: quanto avr a dormito? Intorno a lui e notte fonda. E
Lupo Russo perch e non e tornato ancora? Avr a incontrato una pattuglia e sar a stato preso?
Oppure sar a tornato e l'avr a chiamato mentre dormiva e se ne sar a andato credendo che lui
non ci sia pi u.
\Pin shakes himself with a start: How long has he been asleep? Around him it is the
dead of night. And why hasn't Red Wolf returned yet? Could he have run into a patrol
and been captured? Or he could have returned and called to him while he was sleeping, and
then left thinking that he wasn't there anymore."
After certain time conjunctions such as \when", English always uses the present or even
the past tense for the future, whereas Italian requires the future or the futuro anteriore. The
following example, from Calvino's short story L'aria buona is fairly typical. The doctor has
recommended fresh air for Marcovaldo's sick kids. Marcovaldo suggests that the best place
to send the kids is \per la strada", prompting the following response from his long-su ering
wife:
\Aria buona la prenderemo," concluse la moglie, \quando saremo sfrattati e dovremo
dormire allo stellato."
\We'll have fresh air alright," concluded his wife, \when we've been evicted and we have
to sleep under the stars." Literally, \when we will have been evicted and we will have to
sleep under the stars".
Other textbook examples:
Io canter o mentre tu suonerai.
\I'll sing while you play [literally, while you will play]."
Te lo dir o appena lo sapr o.
\I'll tell you as soon as I know [literally \as soon as I will know"].
4 Past tenses in narration: An empirical study
1. Introduction
2. Habitual action use of the imperfetto
3. Scene-scetting
4
4. Scene-framing
5. \Fu" or \era"?
6. Relativity theory: expressing simultaneity
7. Ex post facto: the ordering of events
8. Semantic mutation
4.1 Introduction
Italian novels are most often narrated in a combination of passato remoto and imperfetto,
where these two tenses are employed in a way that has no parallel in English. As discussed
below, there are several uses of the imperfetto that very closely parallel the past progressive
or other habitual-action forms in English, but in Italian it can also be used where English
would use the simple past. Thus Italian e ectively has two past tenses where English has
one, and it is an interesting challenge for an English speaker to gure out when to use which,
and why. To some extent the choice appears to be up to the author, and is decided more by
guidelines than by any strict rule. So I won't even attempt to formulate such rules. Instead
I'll take the approach of a naturalist observing wildlife in the eld, and report what I can of
the nature of the beast.
The above remarks notwithstanding, some conceptual framework is essential. Mixing my
metaphors a bit, the following proposed pairings should be viewed in mathematical lingo as
rst-order approximations only. The pairs are supposed to correspond to remoto/imperfetto.
discrete/continuous
bounded/unbounded
closed/open
external/internal
The rst three are motivated by a combination of everyday English and mathematical
terminology. The last item, external/internal, is taken from [Maiden-Robustelli]. All will
be illustrated in context below. At the end of the day, however, the choice of metaphor is
highly personal; my suggestion for other Italian learners is to nd one that works for you.
Other aspects of time include simultaneity|while A, B|and sequencing|after A, then
B. Here too there are interesting di erences between Italian and English. Finally I discuss
\semantic mutation", i.e. the fact that certain verbs change meaning between the imperfetto
and the passato remoto/prossimo.
4.2 Habitual action use of the imperfetto
In principle, habitual action use of the imperfetto is exactly analogous to the English \would
+ in nitive" or sometimes \used + in nitive": \Every Sunday he would go to church", \when
I was younger I used to go climbing every week", etc. As with the English past progressive,
however, continuous repetition of \would" or \used" every time in a long paragraph becomes
tedious, and one tends to switch to the simple past to avoid monotony. In Italian one
5
can simply switch back and forth between imperfetto and passato remoto. Here's a pretty
example from Pavese's La luna e i fal o:
Cos venne l'inverno e cadde molta neve e il Belbo gel o|si stava al caldo in cucina o nella
stalla, c'era soltanto da spalare il cortile e davanti al cancello, si andava a prendere un'altra
fascina|o bagnavo i salici per Cirino, portavo l'acqua, giocavo alle biglie coi ragazzi. Venne
Natale, Capodanno, l'Epifania; si arrostivano le castagne, tirammo il vino, mangiammo
due volte il tacchino e una l'oca. La signora, le glie, il sor Matteo si facevano attacare il
biroccio per andare a Canelli; una volta portarono a casa del torrone e ne diedero all'Emilia.
La domenica andavo a messa in paese coi ragazzi del Salto, con le donne, e portavamo il
pane a cuocere. La collina di Gaminella era brulla, bianca di neve, la vedevo in mezzo ai
rami secchi di Belbo.
\So winter came and much snow fell and the Belbo froze|one would stay warm in the
kitchen or in the stable, one only had to shovel the yard and in front of the gate, one
would go to get another log [for the re]|or I watered the willows for Cirino, carried water,
played marbles with the boys. Christmas, New Year, and Epiphany came; they would roast
chestnuts, we pulled wine, we ate turkey twice and once a goose. The signora, the girls, and
the signor Matteo would have the biroccio [a small horse-drawn carriage] hooked up to go
to Canelli; one time they brought home some torrone [a kind of nougat] and gave some to
Emilia. On Sundays I would go to mass in the village with the kids from Salto, with the
women, and we would bring bread to bake. The hill of Gaminella would be bare, white with
snow, I would see it in the middle of the dry branches of the Belbo."
In this translation I chose to use the \would" form for the imperfetto almost everywhere
except in the phrase beginning \...or I watered..." It could have been used there, too, but
one does begin to tire of would, would, would over and over again.1 The Italian approach is
more elegant: imperfetto for the habitual actions, with passato remoto inserted to indicate
discrete events such as una volta portarono a casa, \one time they brought home".
The previous example is a self-contained scene of daily life in winter. The imperfetto is
also used, sometimes at length, in establishing background for a story. (This is not the same
as \scene-setting", to be described later.) Consider for example the short story La madre by
Natalia Ginsburg. It begins with six and a half pages of imperfetto before the rst, rather
abrupt occurence of passato remoto: Un giorno ch'erano andati a fare una passeggiata...,
al ritorno videro la madre in un ca e di periferia. From there on the narration takes place
in the usual mix of passato remoto and imperfetto. But the English translation of the
long imperfetto section (for example the translation in [Trevelyan]; see the book reviews)
uses mainly the simple past, and necessarily so: the only alternative is the habitual-action
\would" form, which once again is too tedious. I like the way the translator (Isabel Quigley)
uses the \would" form, but only sparingly. For example, simple descriptions such as La
madre al mattino andava a fare la spesa are best rendered as \In the morning their mother
went to do the shopping", not \would go to do the shopping". On the other hand in a
few well-chosen cases the latter works well: certe volte rientrava molto tardi, i ragazzi si
1For the same reason, Italian novels and even short stories shouldn't be written in the passato prossimo.
The constant repetition of auxiliaries is too monotonous.
6
svegliavano allora \sometimes she came in very late, and the boys would wake up", or Li
prendeva sulle ginocchia e diceva nel suo dialetto delle parole tenere e come un poco pietose,
\She [the grandma] would take them [the boys] on her knee and say tender and slightly
pitiful-sounding words in dialect".
Or in Pratolini's novel Il Quartiere, Chapter 1 sets the scene in the imperfetto, while
Chapter 2 begins Un giorno Arrigo prese a pugni Carlo... In English the opening phrase
\One day..." by itself signals the beginning of the action, just as in the Ginzburg example;
in Italian this is neatly reinforced by the switch to passato remoto. In contrast, Chapter 1
is an introduction to life in the Quartiere di Santa Croce, for instance:
Si usciva dal lavoro dopo le sei di pomeriggio; e non esisteva vera vita, societ a vera,
calore, se non quando eravamo delle nostre strade e piazze...Anche coloro che lavoravano
nelle fabbriche della periferia, pedalavano veloci sui viali per raggiungere il Quartiere e godere
la serata che gli apparteneva.
\One left work after six in the afternoon; and true life, true society and warmth didn't
exist until we were in our own streets and plazas...Those who worked in the factories of the
suburbs also pedaled fast through the streets to reach the Quartiere and enjoy the evening
that belonged to them."
Here again one could say \one would leave work", but this certainly isn't necessary.
4.3 Scene-setting
The imperfetto is often used to \set the scene" for subsequent action. Here English uses
either the simple past or the past progressive, with the choice between them sometimes a
matter of taste. In Italian there is no grammatical di erence between \background" as in
the previous section and \scene-setting"; both use the imperfetto. In English this is only
true if one sticks to the simple past; the habitual-action \would" and the past progressive
are not interchangeable.
The following example is from L'Eretico by Carlo Martigli:
Un uomo di poco pi u di vent'anni sedeva in fondo alla taverna del Sole, situata in uno
dei vicoli pi u scuri e stretti di Firenze, a pochi passi dal mercato. Beveva a lunghi sorsi, e le
gocce che cadevano dal boccale di peltro rigavano di viola l'uniforme gialla di guardia della
repubblica. Vide entrare un altro giovane...
\A man a little over twenty was sitting in the back of the Sun Tavern, situated in one
of the darkest, narrowest alleys of Firenze, a short way from the market. He was drinking
in long gulps, and the drops that fell from the pewter mug left purple lines on the yellow
uniform of a republican guard. He saw another young man come in..."
Thus the imperfetto sets the scene, up to the passato remoto vide where the action
begins. The only di erence in the English translation, at least as I would render it above, is
that in English the constant repetition of past progressives \was sitting, was drinking, were
falling, were leaving purple lines" quickly becomes tedious. \He was drinking in long gulps"
already establishes the progressive nature of the action, and there is no need to repeat it.
7
Alternatively one could use the gerund directly in the form \...and the drops falling from the
pewter mug..." (One has to be careful, however, with the Italian gerund; see below.) One
could also use the simple past: \A man...sat in the back" and \He drank in long gulps...",
although I prefer the past progressive version as above.
In the next example, the opening of Calvino's short story L'avventura di un lettore, I
prefer to use the simple past:
La strada litoranea, sul capo, passava alta; il mare era laggi u a strapiombo e dappertutto
intorno, no all'orizzonte alto e sfumato. Anche il sole era dappertutto, come se il cielo e il
mare fossero due lenti che lo ingrandivano. L a sotto, contro il frastagli irregolari degli scogli
del capo, l'acqua calma batteva senza spuma. Amedeo Oliva scese una rampa...
\The coastal road ran high along the cape; the sea was below the overhang and everywhere
around, fading nally into the high horizon. The sun too was everywhere, as though the
sky and the sea were two lenses that magni ed it. Below, against the irregular indentations
of the rocks of the cape, the calm water lapped without foam. Amedeo Oliva descended a
ramp..."
I've taken some liberties with this non-literal translation, but for present purposes the
relevant point is the choice of tense. The Italian sets the scene with the imperfetto up to
scese, while in my version of the English, everything is in the simple past. \Magni ed" and
\lapped" could conceivably be put in the past progressive, but I prefer the translation as is.
Once again, I nd the Italian system elegant and attractive.
4.4 Scene-framing
Some authors use a technique similar to scene-setting that I'll call \scene-framing". Whether
it is really a conscious technique, or just something they do automatically, I have no idea.
Here the closed/open analogy is particularly apt; the action is narrated in a long \open
interval" in the imperfetto, bounded at both ends by the remoto to form a \closed interval".
I'll give two examples; the passages are too long to quote in full so I'll quote only enough to
give the idea. The remoto is given in boldface; everything inbetween is in imperfetto. The
rst example is condensed from two long paragraphs in La Bella Estate.
Quel pomeriggio fu il pi u bello che Ginia avesse mai passato. Aveva solo paura che
arrivasse Amelia...Guido e Rodrigues discutevano sempre e ogni tanto Guido la guardava
ridendo...Era una discussione di pittura e Guido parlava con furia...Rodrigues...stava zitto
o rideva come un galletto...quando [Guido] diceva qualcosa, faceva piacere sentirlo.
Fuori, sui tetti, faceva ancora un po' di sole...Ginia...pensava che sarebbe stato bello,
nascosta l a dietro a insaputa di tutti, spiare qualcuno che si credesse solo nella stanza. In
quel momento Guido disse: |Fa freddo. Ce n' e ancora del t e?
Summarizing: \That afternoon was the nicest that Ginia had ever experienced....[long
description of Guido and Rodrigues conversing about painting, Guido
irting with Ginia,
the view from the upstairs window, Ginia daydreaming, etc.]...Just then Guido said: `It's
8
cold. Is there any more tea?' " The external/internal metaphor suggested by [Maiden-
Robustelli] also works well here. Within the \open interval" of the imperfetto we're seeing
the internal view, Ginia's view. At the boundary points of the \closed interval", the external
world intrudes (quite literally at the end, interrupting Ginia's reverie). In the imperfetto
section an English translation could include many past progressives and habitual actions,
e.g. \...Guido and Rodrigues were constantly discussing and every so often Guido would look
at her laughing..." But in many places English would use the simple past, e.g. \...[Ginia]
thought how nice it would be..."
An example from Il cavaliere inesistente, again with much of the \scene" omitted:
Il giovane prese per gli accampamenti. Era l'ora incerta che precede l'alba. Si notava
tra i padiglioni un primo muoversi di gente...Incontrava paladini gi a chiusi nelle loro corazze
lustre...Ma i due che egli stava seguendo...erano certo due grandi comandanti. Il giovane
corse a presentarsi a loro...
\The young man [Rambaldo] headed for the encampment. It was the uncertain hour that
precedes the dawn. Among the pavilions one could discern the rst stirring of people...He
encountered knights already enclosed in their shining armor...But the two that he was fol-
lowing...were certainly two great commanders. The young man ran to to introduce himself
to them."
Thus the action verbs prese and corse frame the descriptive scene.
As a side note I point out that immediately following the scene quoted above, Calvino
switches abruptly to the present tense for a while. I nd this technique to be contrived and
annoying in any language, but it seems to be a common practice among Italian authors (see
4.7 below).
4.5 \Fu" or \era"?
The verb essere is a particularly interesting case, because with only occasional exceptions the
English translation of the remoto fu and imperfetto era is simply \was". (Constructions such
as \he was being obstinate" or \on winter days, she would often be sad" are certainly possible,
but comparatively rare in practice.) The discrete/continuous model applies reasonably well
here: fu refers to a discrete event or state, era to the continous case. The \discrete event"
model is perfectly illustrated in the following example from the short story L'avventura di
un viaggiatore by Calvino:
Per un attimo, Federico V. fu colto dal sentimento d'invidia che gli avevano sempre
ispirato le persone dall'aria pi u pratica e vitale della sua; ma fu un'impressione istantanea,
che subito cancell o...
\For a moment, Federico V. was seized by the feeling of envy that people with a more
practical, vital manner than his had always inspired in him; but it was a
eeting impression,
that he immediately erased..."
A similar example from I passi sulla neve:
9
Quando fu in un viale del parco, si ferm o...
\When he reached [was in] an avenue in the park, he stopped..." See also the example
above Quel pomeriggio fu....
These uses of fu should be contrasted with the much more common era, used for general
descriptions, ongoing states, habitual actions and the like. Some random examples from I
passi sulla neve:
C'era un ca e ancora aperto...La villa era a pochi passi...Il parco era molto grande...
To conclude, here's an interesting example from La luna e i fal o. A group of boys who
are supposed to be working sneak down to the river to goof o and go swimming.
Era qui che mi vantavo del mio soprannome di Anguilla, e fu allora che Nicoletto per
l'invidia disse che ci avrebbe fatto la spia e cominci o a chiamarmi bastardo.
\It was here that I would boast about my nickname \the Eel", and it was then that
Nicoletto, out of envy, said that he would tell on us and started calling me a bastard."
4.6 Relativity theory: expressing simultaneity
According to Einstein's theory of relativity, not only is it di cult to decide whether or not
two events are simultaneous; worse, the concept of \simultaneity" is not even well-de ned.
However, for practical purposes this is only a problem when two observers|Italian speakers,
let's say|are moving relative to each other at a velocity near the speed of light. In my
experience, this situation rarely arises, so we will assume that simultaneity makes sense and
consider how it is expressed in Italian.
A variety of constructions are used to indicate the simultaneity of two events, and al-
though there are some similarities with English, there are signi cant di erences as well. The
principal constructions are:
1. the imperfetto, used as a past progressive as in English
2. the imperfetto of stare + gerund, as in stava parlando
3. the gerund, used as in English but with one key restriction: the subject-agreement rule
(explained below).
4. the imperfetto, used where English would use a gerund ( lling the gap left by item 2)
5. the in nitive, used where English would use a gerund or a past progressive
Since the ve types are often found together in various combinations, rather than go
through them one by one I'll proceed by example. Consider rst the following, from Pavese's
La bella estate:
Mentre bevevano, Guido le raccont o che quelle tazze erano un regalo di una ragazza come
lei, che veniva a trovarlo per farsi fare il ritratto. \ E dov' e questo ritratto?" chiese Ginia.
\Non era mica una modella," disse Guido ridendo.
10
\While they were drinking, Guido told her that the cups were a gift from a girl like her,
who used to come see him to have her portrait done. \And where is this portrait?" asked
Ginia. \She wasn't exactly a model", said Guido laughing."
Here the imperfetto mentre bevevano ts well with \while they were drinking" (although
\while they drank" is also possible); the combination \mentre + imperfetto" is very common
and illustrates type 1. The gerund ridendo functions as in English to indicate that the saying
and the laughing occur together. (On the other hand, the imperfetto veniva is certainly not a
past progressive; it has to be rendered di erently. Thus the interpretation of the imperfetto
is heavily context-dependent, but this is typical of language in general.)
In contrast, the Italian form (imperfetto of stare) + (gerund) is used only as a past
progressive, as far as I know. In particular, types 1 and 2 are generally translated identically
in English, which makes the inverse problem a little tricky. It isn't clear to me when the
choice between types 1 and 2 follows a rule, and when it is just a matter of taste; my
impression is that type 2 serves to emphasize the progressive nature of one action occuring
simultaneously with another. One common instance of type 2 is in sentences of the type \X
was doing Y, when Z". Here's an example from Calvino's short story La cura delle vespe,
one of many amusing tales of the hapless Marcovaldo. Here Marcovaldo has discovered that
wasp stings seem to cure certain ailments, and has opened his own \wasp cure" business. His
son Michelino has gone to get more wasps, but accidentally breaks the nest, with disastrous
results.
Marcovaldo stava dicendo ai suoi pazienti: \Abbiate pazienza, adesso arrivano le vespe,"
quando la porta s'apperse e lo sciame invase la stanza. Nemmeno videro Michelino che
andava a cacciare il capo in un catino d'acqua: tutto la stanza fu piena di vespe...
\Marcovaldo was saying to his patients: \Be patient, the wasps will arrive shortly,"
when the the door opened and the swarm invaded the room. They didn't even see Michelino
running to stick his head in a basin of water: the whole room was full of wasps..."
Here I've tried a non-literal translation of the second sentence, an alternative being
\...Michelino, who went to stick his head..." The main point I want to make with this
translation is that one can not say videro Michelino andando or videro Michelino correndo,
as this would imply that the patients are going/running, not Michelino: the gerund has to
agree with the subject; this is the subject-agreement rule of type. Similarly if I want to
translate \I saw a snake slithering across the road", the literal Vidi un serpente strisciando
attraverso la strada would mean that while I was slithering across the road, I saw a snake.
As in the wasp story, the gerund has to be replaced by che strisciava (type 4).
The next example, from Pratolini's Il Quartiere, is of a slightly di erent character:
\S , e d'oro" rispose Giorgio. \Un regalone!"
Gino si stavo voltando verso lo sposo col bicchiere alzato, forse con l'intenzione di un
brindisi, ma il suo gesto fu brusco, non fece in tempo ad evitare Maria che gli passava di
lato.
\Yes, it's gold," replied Giorgio. \A grand gift!"
11
\Gino was turning toward the groom with his glass raised, perhaps intending a toast, but
the gesture was sudden and he didn't react in time to avoid Maria who was passing beside
him."
The interesting point here is the use of si stava voltando to indicate one point of simul-
taneity, and the simple imperfetto passava for another. As I interpret it, the form si stava
voltando serves to express the simultaneity of the turning with Giorgio's exclamation Un re-
galone!. Meanwhile, Maria was passing behing him: passava. (Note also the passato remoto
fu and fece, both of which t the \discrete event" model.)
The next example is of item 5, taken from Le perfezioni provvisorie by Caro glio.
Uscendo dalla libreria, con l'idea di prendermela comodo ancora per una mezz'ora, vidi
arrivare il signor Ferraro...
\As I was leaving the bookstore, with the idea of taking it easy for another half hour, I
saw the signor Ferraro arriving..." Or literally, \I saw to arrive the signor Ferraro", a use of
the in nitive that doesn't work in English.
Finally, here's an interesting example from Il cavaliere inesistente, one that puzzled me
for some time when I rst saw it. The young Rambaldo is complaining to Agilulfo, the
non-existent knight, that in the early morning his muscles are sometimes sluggish and cold.
\Succede anche a voi?" [chiese Rambaldo.]
\A me no", disse Agilulfo, e gi a gli voltava le spalle, se ne andava.
As far as I can see there is no way to translate gli voltava le spalle and se ne andava with
actual verb conjugations in English. I expected se ne and o here, but if a simple \he left"
was intended, then surely Calvino would have used it. And attempts to use past progressive
yield only a muddle such as \already he was turning away, and he was leaving". And yet
one wants the saying, the turning away and the leaving to be simultaneous. Better, I think,
is to use gerunds:
\Does it happen to you too?" [Rambaldo asked.]
\Not to me," said Agilulfo, turning away and leaving.
An alternative is something like \as he turned away and left", or, taking some liberty
with the translation, \as he turned away and rode o ".
4.7 In the eye of the beholder: the remote, the recent, the present
The existence of two past perfect tenses, passato prossimo and passato remoto, is problematic
for English speakers since we have only one: andai and sono andato are both simply \I went".
The problem is compounded by the unfortunate choice of terms \prossimo" and \remoto".
To quote from [Maiden-Robustelli], x15.16:
\The terms prossimo and remoto are rather misleading, for what is relevant in choosing
between these two forms is not `nearness/remoteness' in time, but the degree of `pyschological
involvement'."
12
Hence in narration, and especially in informal narration, the choice of passato remoto
versus passato prossimo appears to be up to the speaker. As far as I can tell, there are
few|if any|genuine \rules". Furthermore, the past can even be narrated in the present
tense, especially in speech. This mixing of past and present is common in English as well:
\So I'm walking up the trail, just daydreaming, when all of a sudden a bear explodes out of
the bushes and runs away. I just about jumped out of my shoes!" An Italian narrator, on the
other hand, has four degrees of \past-ness" to choose from: remote, recent and present|plus
the imperfetto, although this is a di erent kind of choice. Moreover, the choice may have
no relation whatever to the actual time scale of the events, re
ecting instead the particular
way the speaker wishes to present them.
Here's an interesting and fairly typical example from La ne e il mio inizio by journalist
Tiziano Terzani, illustrating all four possibilities. The book is in the form of a conversation
between Terzani and his son Folco (see the book reviews for more background); here Terzani
talks about smoking opium in Cambodia, during the Vietnam war before the Khmer Rouge
seized power. The opium house he frequents is run by a certain Madame Chantal.
Quando la sera uscivo dall'Hotel Le Phnom, dopo aver scritto il pezzo o nito la mia
giornata prendendo appunti, c'erano gi a tutti questi cyclopousse [bicycle-taxis] pronti, che
chiamavano \Monsieur Moustache! Monsieur Moustache" perch e tutti sapevano dove an-
davo. La cosa divertente fu quando la Mamma venne per la prima volta a Phnom Penh e io
le volli presentare questo mondo mio. Arriviamo con il solito cyclopousse, lo sportellino si
apre, Chantal guarda e fa \Ah, Monsieur Moustache et...Madame Monsieur Moustache!"
La Mamma era diventata Madame Monsieur Moustache!
Sono andato l per alcuni anni, durante tutta la guerra.
\When I would go out in the evening from Hotel Le Phnom, after having written a
piece or having nished my day taking notes, there were already all these cyclopousse ready,
calling \Monsieur Moustache! Monsieur Moustache!" because they all knew where I was
going. The funny thing was when your mother came to Phnom Penh for the rst time and I
wanted to introduce her to this world of mine. We arrive with the cyclopousse as usual, the
little door opens, Chantal looks and says \Ah, Monsieur Moustache et...Madame Monsieur
Moustache!"
Your mother had become Madame Monsieur Moustache!
I went there for several years, throughout the war."
The fact that the episode starts in the imperfetto and then switches to passato remoto
with fu ts our earlier model, transitioning from \continuous" background to a \discrete"
event. Then Terzani switches to the present tense, exactly as an English speaker might do
when telling such a story. Finally \I went" is rendered in the passato prossimo sono andato,
and herein lies the novelty for English speakers. What governs this choice is not entirely
clear to me, but the key point to note is that it has nothing to do with how long ago the
events took place; all of the events in the excerpt took place about thirty years before the
time of the interview.
This jumping around the tenses is common in novels as well. For example, to take one
sequence from Pratolini's Il Quartiere, chapter 11 is in the passato remoto, chapters 12-14
13
are in a combination of present and passato prossimo, and chapter 15 returns to the passato
remoto. Once again it's clear that the choice has little or nothing to do with the actual
distance in time separating the narrator from the events, but is rather a style choice on the
part of the author. Il Quartiere is narrated in the rst-person but Pratolini switches tenses
in a similar way in Le ragazze di Sanfrediano, which is in the third person.
Pavese's La luna e i fal o provides another interesting example. Here the rst-person
narrator is dealing with several principal time periods: (i) reminiscences of his childhood
and adolescence; (ii) adult years in America; (iii) his return to his childhood haunts after the
war. Again the passato remoto, passato prossimo and present tense are used, but it's not
easy to nd any correlation between these three tenses and the aforementioned time periods.
Period (i) is usually in the passato remoto, but often period (ii) is as well, even though (if
I understand correctly) this is the period from which the narrator is telling the story. It all
depends on how the author wants to present it, not on how recent or remote the events may
be.
4.8 Ex post facto: the order of events
By \order of events" I mean constructions of the form \after A, then B" or \having done
A, then B". There are at least two interesting di erences between Italian and English in
this regard. First of all, Italian uses a past participle by itself in a way that isn't allowed in
English, as in the following example from Cassola's I poveri:
Arrivata in chiesa, guard o subito verso il primo banco a sinistra...
\On entering the church, she immediately looked around at the rst row on the left..."
(Translation from [Trevelyan].) Literally \entered the church...", which could be translated
as \having entered the church". But in this case \on entering" is better.
Second, Italian uses an in nitive where English does not, as in the following from Silone's
Vino e pane:
Dopo aver ri
ettuto, egli aggiunse in tono impacciato...
\After re
ecting, he added in an embarassed tone..." Alternatives include \after re
ec-
tion" or \having re
ected", but of course not the literal \after to have re
ected".
One other di erence of note is that the literal translation of \having re
ected", avendo
ri
ettuto, cannot be used as above, i.e. to indicate \after". It is only used in the sense of
\since" or \because", as in the following example from the grammar text [Kinder-Savini]:
Il magistrato, non avendo riscontrato prove concrete, chiuse l'indagine. \The magistrate,
having found no concrete evidence, closed the investigation." In other words, because he
found no such evidence, he closed the investigation.
4.9 Semantic mutation
Sometimes the passato remoto (or prossimo) and imperfetto of a verb have di erent mean-
ings; I call this \semantic mutation" (just for fun, really). In fact the mutations are rather
14
mild, and in one way or another t with the remoto/imperfetto metaphors given in the in-
troduction. As far as I know, mutations of this type occur with only a handful of verbs, but
they are very common ones.
4.9.1 Sapere
Sapeva usually means \knew"; seppe usually means \found out", \learned", \heard". The
following example from La luna e i fal o is instructive on several counts:
Con me attacc o discorso civilmente; sapeva di dove venivo; mi chiese se ero stato anche
in Francia, e beveva il ca e scostando il mignolo e piegandosi avanti.
\He politely struck up a conversation with me; he knew where I came from; he asked me
if I had also been to France, and drank his co ee sticking out his little nger and leaning
forward."
Contrast this with the following from Vino e pane, by Ignazio Silone:
Poi seppi che, su denunzia del consolato italiano, egli era stato espulso dalla Francia.
\Then I learned that, having been denounced by the Italian consulate, he was expelled
from France." To some extent this contrast ts with the discrete/continuous model, since
`to nd out" is a discrete instance, i.e. localized in time, of the continuous \to know". As
usual, the passato prossimo di ers from the imperfetto in exactly the same way, e.g. (again
from Vino e pane):
\Novit a di Bianchina?" disse Cristina.
\Una notizia curiosa," disse don Paolo, \Ho saputo di una relazione amorosa tra quella
ragazza e suo fratello Alberto."
\Any news of Bianchina?" said Cristina.
\Some curious news," said don Paolo, \I heard [found out, learned] about a love a air
between that girl and your brother Alberto."
4.9.2 Conoscere
A similar semantic mutation occurs with conoscere: In the passato remoto/prossimo it usu-
ally means \to meet" (i.e. a person, usually) and in the imperfetto \to know", in the sense \to
be acquainted with" a person or thing. Again this ts loosely with the discrete/continuous
model, since to meet someone is to know them for the rst time, a discrete event. The
following example is from the same conversation between don Paolo and Cristina (the latter
is speaking).
In quanto a Bianchina mi permetto solo di ricordarle le circostanze un po' speciali in cui
lei l'ha conosciuta.
\As far as Bianchina, I'll only allow myself to remind you of the rather special circum-
stances in which you met her."
15
Contrast this with the following example from Ginzburg's La madre:
La madre aveva posato sul tavolo la sua sciarpa scozzese e la vecchia borsetta di coccodrillo
che conoscevano bene.
\The mother had put on the table her scottish scarf and the old crocodile-skin purse that
they [her children] knew well."
On the other hand, the passato remoto/prossimo can also be used for \to know" in the
sense of \to experience", as in \it was then that he knew real hunger", or more famously as
in the King James Bible when a man and a woman lieth together and \know" each other.
Here's an example from La ragazza di Bube, by Carlo Cassola:
\Bube caro," disse lei appoggiandogli la testa sulla spalla. E di nuovo conobbero le dolcezze
dell'amore tenero e a ettuoso.
\Bube darling," she said, resting her head on his shoulder. And once more they knew
[experienced] the sweetness of tender, a ectionate love."
In this instance the reference is not to actually knowing each other in the biblical sense:
No Bube, no...Non bisogna farlo...Non siamo ancora sposati.
4.9.3 Dovere
The auxiliary verbs dovere undergoes a somewhat di erent semantic mutation. According to
[Proudfoot-Cardo], the imperfetto form doveva is equivalent to avrebbe dovuto, and therefore
correspond at least approximately to English \should have", whereas dovette means \had to".
But these interpretations are oversimpli ed and not supported by the empirical evidence.
Many other intepretations are possible; it depends on the context.
Consider rst the following example from Vino e pane:
Dopo una pessima annata, in cui tutto il raccolto and o perduto, mio padre dovette vendere
una vigna che sta dietro il castello del paese.
\After a bad year, in which the entire harvest was lost, my father had to sell a vinyard
that lies behind the town castle." This is a typical use of the remoto/prossimo, with the
meaning of \had to". But sometimes a slightly di erent English translation is needed. For
instance, in Il Quartiere Pratolini frequently uses dovere in the following way:
Ebbi un colpo al petto, umiliato dei miei calzoni corti, del mio volto quindicenne con
appena la peluria nera sulle labra. Dovetti accendermi in volto.
\I felt my chest tighten [better translation?], humiliated by my short pants and my
fteen-year old face with only a little black fuzz on my upper lip. I must have turned red."
In this case \I had to turn red" de nitely doesn't work; \I had to have turned red" is possible
but too clumsy.
16
Now consider the following excerpt from Calvino's short story L'avventura di un soldato.2
Doveva lui, Tomagra, rispettare questo sonno, vero o nto che fosse, e ritrarsi? O era un
espediente di donna complice, ch'egli avrebbe dovuto gi a conoscere, e di cui doveva in qualche
modo mostrare gratitudine?
\Should he, Tomagra, respect this sleeping, real or fake though it might be, and draw
back? Or was it a ruse of feminine complicity, which he should have already recognized, and
for which he should in some way show his gratitude?"
Here the \should" interpretation is certainly correct, but one has to pay attention to
the tense. The two instances of doveva are de nitely not translated as \should have" in
English, despite the past tense. This is somewhat similar to the tense-shifting in the past
conditional discussed in x2, except that now the English and Italian past conditionals avrebbe
dovuto and \should have" line up perfectly, and the tense-shifting occurs between \should"
and \doveva". If we follow the model given in [Proudfoot-Cardo], doveva above could be
replaced by avrebbe dovuto, thereby making an exact analogy with x2, but I doubt that this
would be correct.
It appears that the \must have" interpretation of dovette can, at least in some cases, be
achieved by doveva. Here are two examples from Vino e pane:
1. ...ma dove erano i ciliegi? Dove il noce? Lo zio che aveva in consegna la vigna, doveva
averli fatti abbattere.
2. Di quell'arrivo alla locanda don Paolo non serb o altro ricordo. Doveva essere stordito
e stanco morto.
1. \...but where were the cherry trees? Where was the walnut tree? The uncle who had
custody of the vinyard must have chopped them down."
2. \Don Paolo retained no other memory of his arrival at the inn. He must have been
dazed and dead tired."
Comparing these two examples with dovetti accendermi in volto above, the di erence
can be explained using several of the metaphors from the introduction. The \turning red"
is a discrete, or bounded, or closed event. Don Paolo's being dazed and tired is a more
continuous, less bounded, open event. Similarly the chopping down of the trees, even if it
was a discrete event at the time, cannot be so construed because of the speculative nature
of the statement. Or perhaps these tense choices are just personal choices by the writer, but
it certainly is not true that doveva in itself implies \should". It depends on the context.
4.9.4 Potere
Here [Proudfoot-Cardo] translate pot e and poteva as \was able to" and \could have" respec-
tively, and say that poteva can be replaced by avrebbe potuto. As with dovere, this isn't
always true; it depends on the context. An example from Vino e pane:
2This belongs to a collection of stories entitled Gli amori di cili. They're very clever and fun to read.
17
Don Paolo manteneva gli occhi chiusi; ma dal rumore delle ruote egli pot e riconoscere
quando la carrozzella fu sull'acciottolato della piazzetta di Orta.
\Don Paolo kept his eyes closed, but from the noise of the wheels he was able to recognize
when the little carriage was on the cobblestones of the small square of Orta."
Of course, in English one can often use \could" interchangeably with \was able to", and
sometimes the former seems better for its brevity. Consider the following from L'avventura
di un soldato:
...a ogni modo lei non si tir o indietro, almeno per quel che pot e capire lui!
\...in any case she didn't shrink back, at least as far as he could tell!" Here \was able to
tell" is also possible.
Turning to poteva, we encounter the same tense-shifting di culty occuring with doveva,
plus the fact that \could" and \might" are often used interchangeably in English. From the
same Calvino story we have:
A pensarci, per o, quel suo non far caso alla mobile mano di Tomagra poteva voler dire
che veramente credesse ad una vana ricerca in quella tasca: d'un biglietto ferrovario, d'un
ammifero...
\On second thought, however, her not paying attention to the wandering hand of Tomagra
could mean that she really believed it was a fruitless searching in that pocket: for a train
ticket, a match..."
Here \might mean" is an alternative. The past conditional \could have meant" is cer-
tainly grammatically possible, but in this passage Tomagra is still ddling around in his
pocket, and I think \could mean" is better. On the other hand, poteva can also mean \was
able to", as in the following from Vino e pane:
Don Paolo poteva riconoscere ogni casa, ogni camino, ogni nestra, ogni orto.
\Don Paolo was able to recognize every house, every chimney, every window, every gar-
den." Here \could have recognized" would clearly be wrong, and we see that \was able to"
is not exclusive to pot e /ha potuto. The choice of imperfetto here surely just corresponds
to the usual \continuous action" model, as opposed to the more discrete events of the pot e
examples above.
4.9.5 Volere
Here there is a di erent kind of mutation. The remoto/prossimo usually imply that the
thing wanted was in fact obtained, whereas in the imperfetto it was not or may not have
been obtained. I think of this as tting with the bounded/unbounded model: In the former
case the wanting comes to end, in the latter maybe not. An example from Il quartiere:
Gino volle restare per vedere il lm ancora una volta; e siccome anche Giorgio ci lasci o
perch e sua madre aveva bisogno di lui, eravamo rimasti i due avversari paci cati ed io.
18
\Gino wanted to stay and see the lm one more time; and since Giorgio left us becausse
his mother needed him, there remained just the two paci ed adversaries and me."
As the context makes clear even in the English version, Gino not only wanted to stay;
he did. In the Italian this is also implied by the conjugation volle rather than voleva. The
imperfetto tends to imply that the thing wanted was not obtained, e.g. from Vino e pane:
Mio fratello voleva ricomprare la stessa vigna, a causa di essa fece omicidio e n all'ergastolo.
\My brother wanted to buy the vinyard back, and because of it committed murder and
received a life sentence." He wanted to, but it never happened.
19Italian meets the fourth dimension: tense and time
1. Introduction
2. Past conditional
3. Back to the future
4. Past tenses in narration: an empirical study
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Habitual action use of the imperfetto
4.3. Scene-setting
4.4. Scene-framing
4.5. \Fu" or \era"?
4.6. Relativity theory: expressing simultaneity
4.7. In the eye of the beholder: the remote, the recent, the present
4.8. Ex post facto: the ordering of events
4.9. Semantic mutations
1 Introduction
Most European languages (all, as far as I know) use speci c verb \tenses" to distinguish past,
present and future. However, the tenses don't match as neatly with the times as one might
hope. Both English and Italian, for example, frequently use the present tense to indicate
future events. Both languages even use the past tense to indicate the future, although not
in the same way, and Italian can use the future tense to indicate the past (see \Back to the
future" below). And then there is the peculiar English use of the present progressive for the
future, made even more peculiar when it incorporates \to go" (e.g. the self-contradictory
\tomorrow I'm going to stay in bed"). In any case, the obvious corollary is that the tenses
of the two languages usually don't align neatly with each other. In this chapter I'll consider
some of the more interesting ways in which time and tense di er.
It seems to be generally true that the past tense has the greatest variation from language
to language. In Hungarian, for example, there is essentially only one past tense, and I've
been told that the many past tenses in English are confusing to Hungarians. English speakers
have a similar di culty with Italian, which has variants of the past tense that either don't
exist at all in English, or correlate inconsistently with their English counterparts. The
most obvious example is the distinction between passato remoto and passato prossimo in
Italian, a dichotomy which has no analog in English, but this isn't the hard case. The
trickiest by far is the choice between passato remoto and imperfetto (mainly in writing), or
equivalently between passato prossimo and imperfetto (mainly in speech). The trouble is
that the imperfetto corresponds to at least four di erent constructions in English: depending
on the context. For instance dormiva could be used in the Italian equivalents of \he slept",
\he was sleeping", \in those days he would sleep until noon", or \I saw a cat sleeping in the
middle of the road." (In the last case \un gatto che dormiva"; in a sense English useage no.
4 is equivalent to no. 2, except that we are lazy and contract \a cat that was sleeping" to
\a cat sleeping". This can't be done in Italian; see below.)
1
In any case, I nd the system of (passato remoto) + (imperfetto) quite elegant and
indeed it's probably my second favorite part of Italian grammar, after the subjunctive. For
this reason, the bulk of this chapter is devoted to analyzing the puzzle of passato remoto
versus imperfetto, especially the cases in which both would be translated by the simple past
in English. This two-to-one mapping causes little trouble in reading, but to write you have
to invert it, and therein lies the challenge.
Other topics considered include expressing the simultaneity of events, the order of events
(after X, then Y) and certain cases|dubbed \semantic mutations"|where the imperfetto
and passato remoto/prossimo di er in meaning as well as in time.
2 Past conditional
One of the most striking features of Italian is that it uses the past conditional where the
other Romance languages would use the present conditional, as does English. Neither French,
Spanish, Portuguese nor Romanian follow the Italian system. Since the di erence can lead to
considerable confusion, it ought to be pointed out forcefully in textbooks. To date, however,
[Maiden-Robustelli] is the only source I've found that gives it the emphasis it deserves,
putting it on page 1 of their chapter on \uses of the verb forms". Here's a typical example,
from the short story I poveri by Carlo Cassola:
La signorina promise che ci avrebbe messo uno buona parola.
In English this would be translated with the present conditional: \The signorina promised
that she would put in a good word." But Italian uses the past conditional: literally,
\promised that she would have put in a good word". Another example from La bella estate:
Si lasciarono cos male che si capiva che Amelia non gliel'avrebbe perdonata. Ma Ginia
che da principio alz o le spalle, un bel momento ebbe paura all'idea che Amelia l'avrebbe presa
in giro con Guido e Rodrigues...
\They parted on such bad terms that it was clear Amelia wouldn't forgive her [literally,
would not have forgiven her]. At rst Ginia shrugged it o , then for a moment panicked at
the thought that Amelia would make fun of her [literally, would have made fun of her] with
Guido and Rodrigues..."
In certain constructions the past tense occurs in English, but without the \would". The
following is from the short story I passi sulla neve by Mario Soldati (where in this case I've
borrowed the translation from [Trevelyan]; see the book reviews):
Passeggi o sotto i portici senza proporsi una meta. Quando si sarebbe sentito stanco,
sarebbe entrato in un ca e: ecco tutto. Ma tornare in albergo, rivedere sua moglie, no, non
ancora.
\He strolled aimlessly along under the arcades. When he felt tired he would turn into a
caf e: that was it. But to go back to the hotel and see his wife again|no, not yet." Literally:
\When he would have felt tired he would have entered a caf e".
2
The confusion (for English speakers) is compounded in the past conditional form of the
periodo ipotetico, i.e. se + Congiuntivo Trapassato + Condizionale Composto, which has
three di erent interpretations depending on the context. The rst runs exactly parallel to
English, as in the following from I passi sulla neve:
Se non fosse stato per le musiche, i canti, le risate, le berciate e gli applausi che venivano
dai televisori delle case lungo le quali stava camminando, avrebbe pensato di attraversare un
paese abbandonato.
\If it hadn't been for the music, the songs, the laughter, the bawling and the applause
coming from the televisions of the houses next to which he was walking, he would have
thought he was passing through an abandoned village."
However, the same form is also used where English would again use the present condi-
tional. An example from L'eretico by Carlo Martigli:
Non era un caso che gli fosse toccato il nome Cesare, un nome cui avrebbe dato nuovo
lustro. Sarebbe stato Cesare non solo di nome ma anche di fatto. Un giorno, se fosse stato
necessario, avrebbe varcato il Rubicone.
\It wasn't by chance that he had been named Caesar, a name to which he would give
new glory. He would be Caesar not only in name but also in fact. One day, if it should prove
necessary, he would cross the Rubicon."
Note that the literal translation e.g. (*) \if it had been necessary, he would have crossed
the Rubicon" changes the meaning completely. The interesting point is that the Italian can
also be interpreted this way. In another context, se fosse stato necessario, avrebbe varcato
il Rubicone could in fact be translated by (*) above. In the present context, however, it is
clear that the nefarious Cesare is imagining his future rise to power.
Surprisingly, the past form above can also be used for the future. According to a textbook
example, one can say:
Se domani avessi potuto, sarei venuto to mean \If I could come tomorrow, I would".
Literally, \If tomorrow I could have, I would have come".
In any case, every Italian textbook|at least those written with speakers of English or
of other Romance languages in mind|ought to emphasize the divergent uses of the past
conditional.
3 Back to the future
As in English, the present tense is often used in place of the future, if the future aspect
is already understood: \Tomorrow we go to the zoo" or Domani andiamo allo zoo. One
peculiar feature of English is the use of the present progressive \to go" for future actions:
\tomorrow we're going to the zoo", the redundant \tomorrow we're going to go to the zoo",
or even the illogical \tomorrow we're going to clean the house" (in which case we're not
going anywhere). As far as I know, the Italian present progressive stare + gerund is never
used in this way.
3
Most strikingly, Italian uses the future perfect (future auxiliary + past participle) to
indicate conjectural past events, as in avranno perso il treno e.g. as a response to someone
failing to show up for a meeting. In English this could be variously translated as \they
must have missed the train", `they probably missed the train" and so on. At any rate the
logical structure is clear, and makes sense: \They will have missed the train" is short for
\In the future, when we nd out what happened, it will probably turn out that they missed
the train." On the other hand, there is no one systematic way to translate this useage into
English. Consider the following example from Il sentiero dei nidi di ragno by Calvino, with
ve occurences of the future perfect (Pin is a young boy who has fallen in with an anti-fascist
partisan nicknamed \Red Wolf"):
Pin si scuote di soprassalto: quanto avr a dormito? Intorno a lui e notte fonda. E
Lupo Russo perch e non e tornato ancora? Avr a incontrato una pattuglia e sar a stato preso?
Oppure sar a tornato e l'avr a chiamato mentre dormiva e se ne sar a andato credendo che lui
non ci sia pi u.
\Pin shakes himself with a start: How long has he been asleep? Around him it is the
dead of night. And why hasn't Red Wolf returned yet? Could he have run into a patrol
and been captured? Or he could have returned and called to him while he was sleeping, and
then left thinking that he wasn't there anymore."
After certain time conjunctions such as \when", English always uses the present or even
the past tense for the future, whereas Italian requires the future or the futuro anteriore. The
following example, from Calvino's short story L'aria buona is fairly typical. The doctor has
recommended fresh air for Marcovaldo's sick kids. Marcovaldo suggests that the best place
to send the kids is \per la strada", prompting the following response from his long-su ering
wife:
\Aria buona la prenderemo," concluse la moglie, \quando saremo sfrattati e dovremo
dormire allo stellato."
\We'll have fresh air alright," concluded his wife, \when we've been evicted and we have
to sleep under the stars." Literally, \when we will have been evicted and we will have to
sleep under the stars".
Other textbook examples:
Io canter o mentre tu suonerai.
\I'll sing while you play [literally, while you will play]."
Te lo dir o appena lo sapr o.
\I'll tell you as soon as I know [literally \as soon as I will know"].
4 Past tenses in narration: An empirical study
1. Introduction
2. Habitual action use of the imperfetto
3. Scene-scetting
4
4. Scene-framing
5. \Fu" or \era"?
6. Relativity theory: expressing simultaneity
7. Ex post facto: the ordering of events
8. Semantic mutation
4.1 Introduction
Italian novels are most often narrated in a combination of passato remoto and imperfetto,
where these two tenses are employed in a way that has no parallel in English. As discussed
below, there are several uses of the imperfetto that very closely parallel the past progressive
or other habitual-action forms in English, but in Italian it can also be used where English
would use the simple past. Thus Italian e ectively has two past tenses where English has
one, and it is an interesting challenge for an English speaker to gure out when to use which,
and why. To some extent the choice appears to be up to the author, and is decided more by
guidelines than by any strict rule. So I won't even attempt to formulate such rules. Instead
I'll take the approach of a naturalist observing wildlife in the eld, and report what I can of
the nature of the beast.
The above remarks notwithstanding, some conceptual framework is essential. Mixing my
metaphors a bit, the following proposed pairings should be viewed in mathematical lingo as
rst-order approximations only. The pairs are supposed to correspond to remoto/imperfetto.
discrete/continuous
bounded/unbounded
closed/open
external/internal
The rst three are motivated by a combination of everyday English and mathematical
terminology. The last item, external/internal, is taken from [Maiden-Robustelli]. All will
be illustrated in context below. At the end of the day, however, the choice of metaphor is
highly personal; my suggestion for other Italian learners is to nd one that works for you.
Other aspects of time include simultaneity|while A, B|and sequencing|after A, then
B. Here too there are interesting di erences between Italian and English. Finally I discuss
\semantic mutation", i.e. the fact that certain verbs change meaning between the imperfetto
and the passato remoto/prossimo.
4.2 Habitual action use of the imperfetto
In principle, habitual action use of the imperfetto is exactly analogous to the English \would
+ in nitive" or sometimes \used + in nitive": \Every Sunday he would go to church", \when
I was younger I used to go climbing every week", etc. As with the English past progressive,
however, continuous repetition of \would" or \used" every time in a long paragraph becomes
tedious, and one tends to switch to the simple past to avoid monotony. In Italian one
5
can simply switch back and forth between imperfetto and passato remoto. Here's a pretty
example from Pavese's La luna e i fal o:
Cos venne l'inverno e cadde molta neve e il Belbo gel o|si stava al caldo in cucina o nella
stalla, c'era soltanto da spalare il cortile e davanti al cancello, si andava a prendere un'altra
fascina|o bagnavo i salici per Cirino, portavo l'acqua, giocavo alle biglie coi ragazzi. Venne
Natale, Capodanno, l'Epifania; si arrostivano le castagne, tirammo il vino, mangiammo
due volte il tacchino e una l'oca. La signora, le glie, il sor Matteo si facevano attacare il
biroccio per andare a Canelli; una volta portarono a casa del torrone e ne diedero all'Emilia.
La domenica andavo a messa in paese coi ragazzi del Salto, con le donne, e portavamo il
pane a cuocere. La collina di Gaminella era brulla, bianca di neve, la vedevo in mezzo ai
rami secchi di Belbo.
\So winter came and much snow fell and the Belbo froze|one would stay warm in the
kitchen or in the stable, one only had to shovel the yard and in front of the gate, one
would go to get another log [for the re]|or I watered the willows for Cirino, carried water,
played marbles with the boys. Christmas, New Year, and Epiphany came; they would roast
chestnuts, we pulled wine, we ate turkey twice and once a goose. The signora, the girls, and
the signor Matteo would have the biroccio [a small horse-drawn carriage] hooked up to go
to Canelli; one time they brought home some torrone [a kind of nougat] and gave some to
Emilia. On Sundays I would go to mass in the village with the kids from Salto, with the
women, and we would bring bread to bake. The hill of Gaminella would be bare, white with
snow, I would see it in the middle of the dry branches of the Belbo."
In this translation I chose to use the \would" form for the imperfetto almost everywhere
except in the phrase beginning \...or I watered..." It could have been used there, too, but
one does begin to tire of would, would, would over and over again.1 The Italian approach is
more elegant: imperfetto for the habitual actions, with passato remoto inserted to indicate
discrete events such as una volta portarono a casa, \one time they brought home".
The previous example is a self-contained scene of daily life in winter. The imperfetto is
also used, sometimes at length, in establishing background for a story. (This is not the same
as \scene-setting", to be described later.) Consider for example the short story La madre by
Natalia Ginsburg. It begins with six and a half pages of imperfetto before the rst, rather
abrupt occurence of passato remoto: Un giorno ch'erano andati a fare una passeggiata...,
al ritorno videro la madre in un ca e di periferia. From there on the narration takes place
in the usual mix of passato remoto and imperfetto. But the English translation of the
long imperfetto section (for example the translation in [Trevelyan]; see the book reviews)
uses mainly the simple past, and necessarily so: the only alternative is the habitual-action
\would" form, which once again is too tedious. I like the way the translator (Isabel Quigley)
uses the \would" form, but only sparingly. For example, simple descriptions such as La
madre al mattino andava a fare la spesa are best rendered as \In the morning their mother
went to do the shopping", not \would go to do the shopping". On the other hand in a
few well-chosen cases the latter works well: certe volte rientrava molto tardi, i ragazzi si
1For the same reason, Italian novels and even short stories shouldn't be written in the passato prossimo.
The constant repetition of auxiliaries is too monotonous.
6
svegliavano allora \sometimes she came in very late, and the boys would wake up", or Li
prendeva sulle ginocchia e diceva nel suo dialetto delle parole tenere e come un poco pietose,
\She [the grandma] would take them [the boys] on her knee and say tender and slightly
pitiful-sounding words in dialect".
Or in Pratolini's novel Il Quartiere, Chapter 1 sets the scene in the imperfetto, while
Chapter 2 begins Un giorno Arrigo prese a pugni Carlo... In English the opening phrase
\One day..." by itself signals the beginning of the action, just as in the Ginzburg example;
in Italian this is neatly reinforced by the switch to passato remoto. In contrast, Chapter 1
is an introduction to life in the Quartiere di Santa Croce, for instance:
Si usciva dal lavoro dopo le sei di pomeriggio; e non esisteva vera vita, societ a vera,
calore, se non quando eravamo delle nostre strade e piazze...Anche coloro che lavoravano
nelle fabbriche della periferia, pedalavano veloci sui viali per raggiungere il Quartiere e godere
la serata che gli apparteneva.
\One left work after six in the afternoon; and true life, true society and warmth didn't
exist until we were in our own streets and plazas...Those who worked in the factories of the
suburbs also pedaled fast through the streets to reach the Quartiere and enjoy the evening
that belonged to them."
Here again one could say \one would leave work", but this certainly isn't necessary.
4.3 Scene-setting
The imperfetto is often used to \set the scene" for subsequent action. Here English uses
either the simple past or the past progressive, with the choice between them sometimes a
matter of taste. In Italian there is no grammatical di erence between \background" as in
the previous section and \scene-setting"; both use the imperfetto. In English this is only
true if one sticks to the simple past; the habitual-action \would" and the past progressive
are not interchangeable.
The following example is from L'Eretico by Carlo Martigli:
Un uomo di poco pi u di vent'anni sedeva in fondo alla taverna del Sole, situata in uno
dei vicoli pi u scuri e stretti di Firenze, a pochi passi dal mercato. Beveva a lunghi sorsi, e le
gocce che cadevano dal boccale di peltro rigavano di viola l'uniforme gialla di guardia della
repubblica. Vide entrare un altro giovane...
\A man a little over twenty was sitting in the back of the Sun Tavern, situated in one
of the darkest, narrowest alleys of Firenze, a short way from the market. He was drinking
in long gulps, and the drops that fell from the pewter mug left purple lines on the yellow
uniform of a republican guard. He saw another young man come in..."
Thus the imperfetto sets the scene, up to the passato remoto vide where the action
begins. The only di erence in the English translation, at least as I would render it above, is
that in English the constant repetition of past progressives \was sitting, was drinking, were
falling, were leaving purple lines" quickly becomes tedious. \He was drinking in long gulps"
already establishes the progressive nature of the action, and there is no need to repeat it.
7
Alternatively one could use the gerund directly in the form \...and the drops falling from the
pewter mug..." (One has to be careful, however, with the Italian gerund; see below.) One
could also use the simple past: \A man...sat in the back" and \He drank in long gulps...",
although I prefer the past progressive version as above.
In the next example, the opening of Calvino's short story L'avventura di un lettore, I
prefer to use the simple past:
La strada litoranea, sul capo, passava alta; il mare era laggi u a strapiombo e dappertutto
intorno, no all'orizzonte alto e sfumato. Anche il sole era dappertutto, come se il cielo e il
mare fossero due lenti che lo ingrandivano. L a sotto, contro il frastagli irregolari degli scogli
del capo, l'acqua calma batteva senza spuma. Amedeo Oliva scese una rampa...
\The coastal road ran high along the cape; the sea was below the overhang and everywhere
around, fading nally into the high horizon. The sun too was everywhere, as though the
sky and the sea were two lenses that magni ed it. Below, against the irregular indentations
of the rocks of the cape, the calm water lapped without foam. Amedeo Oliva descended a
ramp..."
I've taken some liberties with this non-literal translation, but for present purposes the
relevant point is the choice of tense. The Italian sets the scene with the imperfetto up to
scese, while in my version of the English, everything is in the simple past. \Magni ed" and
\lapped" could conceivably be put in the past progressive, but I prefer the translation as is.
Once again, I nd the Italian system elegant and attractive.
4.4 Scene-framing
Some authors use a technique similar to scene-setting that I'll call \scene-framing". Whether
it is really a conscious technique, or just something they do automatically, I have no idea.
Here the closed/open analogy is particularly apt; the action is narrated in a long \open
interval" in the imperfetto, bounded at both ends by the remoto to form a \closed interval".
I'll give two examples; the passages are too long to quote in full so I'll quote only enough to
give the idea. The remoto is given in boldface; everything inbetween is in imperfetto. The
rst example is condensed from two long paragraphs in La Bella Estate.
Quel pomeriggio fu il pi u bello che Ginia avesse mai passato. Aveva solo paura che
arrivasse Amelia...Guido e Rodrigues discutevano sempre e ogni tanto Guido la guardava
ridendo...Era una discussione di pittura e Guido parlava con furia...Rodrigues...stava zitto
o rideva come un galletto...quando [Guido] diceva qualcosa, faceva piacere sentirlo.
Fuori, sui tetti, faceva ancora un po' di sole...Ginia...pensava che sarebbe stato bello,
nascosta l a dietro a insaputa di tutti, spiare qualcuno che si credesse solo nella stanza. In
quel momento Guido disse: |Fa freddo. Ce n' e ancora del t e?
Summarizing: \That afternoon was the nicest that Ginia had ever experienced....[long
description of Guido and Rodrigues conversing about painting, Guido
irting with Ginia,
the view from the upstairs window, Ginia daydreaming, etc.]...Just then Guido said: `It's
8
cold. Is there any more tea?' " The external/internal metaphor suggested by [Maiden-
Robustelli] also works well here. Within the \open interval" of the imperfetto we're seeing
the internal view, Ginia's view. At the boundary points of the \closed interval", the external
world intrudes (quite literally at the end, interrupting Ginia's reverie). In the imperfetto
section an English translation could include many past progressives and habitual actions,
e.g. \...Guido and Rodrigues were constantly discussing and every so often Guido would look
at her laughing..." But in many places English would use the simple past, e.g. \...[Ginia]
thought how nice it would be..."
An example from Il cavaliere inesistente, again with much of the \scene" omitted:
Il giovane prese per gli accampamenti. Era l'ora incerta che precede l'alba. Si notava
tra i padiglioni un primo muoversi di gente...Incontrava paladini gi a chiusi nelle loro corazze
lustre...Ma i due che egli stava seguendo...erano certo due grandi comandanti. Il giovane
corse a presentarsi a loro...
\The young man [Rambaldo] headed for the encampment. It was the uncertain hour that
precedes the dawn. Among the pavilions one could discern the rst stirring of people...He
encountered knights already enclosed in their shining armor...But the two that he was fol-
lowing...were certainly two great commanders. The young man ran to to introduce himself
to them."
Thus the action verbs prese and corse frame the descriptive scene.
As a side note I point out that immediately following the scene quoted above, Calvino
switches abruptly to the present tense for a while. I nd this technique to be contrived and
annoying in any language, but it seems to be a common practice among Italian authors (see
4.7 below).
4.5 \Fu" or \era"?
The verb essere is a particularly interesting case, because with only occasional exceptions the
English translation of the remoto fu and imperfetto era is simply \was". (Constructions such
as \he was being obstinate" or \on winter days, she would often be sad" are certainly possible,
but comparatively rare in practice.) The discrete/continuous model applies reasonably well
here: fu refers to a discrete event or state, era to the continous case. The \discrete event"
model is perfectly illustrated in the following example from the short story L'avventura di
un viaggiatore by Calvino:
Per un attimo, Federico V. fu colto dal sentimento d'invidia che gli avevano sempre
ispirato le persone dall'aria pi u pratica e vitale della sua; ma fu un'impressione istantanea,
che subito cancell o...
\For a moment, Federico V. was seized by the feeling of envy that people with a more
practical, vital manner than his had always inspired in him; but it was a
eeting impression,
that he immediately erased..."
A similar example from I passi sulla neve:
9
Quando fu in un viale del parco, si ferm o...
\When he reached [was in] an avenue in the park, he stopped..." See also the example
above Quel pomeriggio fu....
These uses of fu should be contrasted with the much more common era, used for general
descriptions, ongoing states, habitual actions and the like. Some random examples from I
passi sulla neve:
C'era un ca e ancora aperto...La villa era a pochi passi...Il parco era molto grande...
To conclude, here's an interesting example from La luna e i fal o. A group of boys who
are supposed to be working sneak down to the river to goof o and go swimming.
Era qui che mi vantavo del mio soprannome di Anguilla, e fu allora che Nicoletto per
l'invidia disse che ci avrebbe fatto la spia e cominci o a chiamarmi bastardo.
\It was here that I would boast about my nickname \the Eel", and it was then that
Nicoletto, out of envy, said that he would tell on us and started calling me a bastard."
4.6 Relativity theory: expressing simultaneity
According to Einstein's theory of relativity, not only is it di cult to decide whether or not
two events are simultaneous; worse, the concept of \simultaneity" is not even well-de ned.
However, for practical purposes this is only a problem when two observers|Italian speakers,
let's say|are moving relative to each other at a velocity near the speed of light. In my
experience, this situation rarely arises, so we will assume that simultaneity makes sense and
consider how it is expressed in Italian.
A variety of constructions are used to indicate the simultaneity of two events, and al-
though there are some similarities with English, there are signi cant di erences as well. The
principal constructions are:
1. the imperfetto, used as a past progressive as in English
2. the imperfetto of stare + gerund, as in stava parlando
3. the gerund, used as in English but with one key restriction: the subject-agreement rule
(explained below).
4. the imperfetto, used where English would use a gerund ( lling the gap left by item 2)
5. the in nitive, used where English would use a gerund or a past progressive
Since the ve types are often found together in various combinations, rather than go
through them one by one I'll proceed by example. Consider rst the following, from Pavese's
La bella estate:
Mentre bevevano, Guido le raccont o che quelle tazze erano un regalo di una ragazza come
lei, che veniva a trovarlo per farsi fare il ritratto. \ E dov' e questo ritratto?" chiese Ginia.
\Non era mica una modella," disse Guido ridendo.
10
\While they were drinking, Guido told her that the cups were a gift from a girl like her,
who used to come see him to have her portrait done. \And where is this portrait?" asked
Ginia. \She wasn't exactly a model", said Guido laughing."
Here the imperfetto mentre bevevano ts well with \while they were drinking" (although
\while they drank" is also possible); the combination \mentre + imperfetto" is very common
and illustrates type 1. The gerund ridendo functions as in English to indicate that the saying
and the laughing occur together. (On the other hand, the imperfetto veniva is certainly not a
past progressive; it has to be rendered di erently. Thus the interpretation of the imperfetto
is heavily context-dependent, but this is typical of language in general.)
In contrast, the Italian form (imperfetto of stare) + (gerund) is used only as a past
progressive, as far as I know. In particular, types 1 and 2 are generally translated identically
in English, which makes the inverse problem a little tricky. It isn't clear to me when the
choice between types 1 and 2 follows a rule, and when it is just a matter of taste; my
impression is that type 2 serves to emphasize the progressive nature of one action occuring
simultaneously with another. One common instance of type 2 is in sentences of the type \X
was doing Y, when Z". Here's an example from Calvino's short story La cura delle vespe,
one of many amusing tales of the hapless Marcovaldo. Here Marcovaldo has discovered that
wasp stings seem to cure certain ailments, and has opened his own \wasp cure" business. His
son Michelino has gone to get more wasps, but accidentally breaks the nest, with disastrous
results.
Marcovaldo stava dicendo ai suoi pazienti: \Abbiate pazienza, adesso arrivano le vespe,"
quando la porta s'apperse e lo sciame invase la stanza. Nemmeno videro Michelino che
andava a cacciare il capo in un catino d'acqua: tutto la stanza fu piena di vespe...
\Marcovaldo was saying to his patients: \Be patient, the wasps will arrive shortly,"
when the the door opened and the swarm invaded the room. They didn't even see Michelino
running to stick his head in a basin of water: the whole room was full of wasps..."
Here I've tried a non-literal translation of the second sentence, an alternative being
\...Michelino, who went to stick his head..." The main point I want to make with this
translation is that one can not say videro Michelino andando or videro Michelino correndo,
as this would imply that the patients are going/running, not Michelino: the gerund has to
agree with the subject; this is the subject-agreement rule of type. Similarly if I want to
translate \I saw a snake slithering across the road", the literal Vidi un serpente strisciando
attraverso la strada would mean that while I was slithering across the road, I saw a snake.
As in the wasp story, the gerund has to be replaced by che strisciava (type 4).
The next example, from Pratolini's Il Quartiere, is of a slightly di erent character:
\S , e d'oro" rispose Giorgio. \Un regalone!"
Gino si stavo voltando verso lo sposo col bicchiere alzato, forse con l'intenzione di un
brindisi, ma il suo gesto fu brusco, non fece in tempo ad evitare Maria che gli passava di
lato.
\Yes, it's gold," replied Giorgio. \A grand gift!"
11
\Gino was turning toward the groom with his glass raised, perhaps intending a toast, but
the gesture was sudden and he didn't react in time to avoid Maria who was passing beside
him."
The interesting point here is the use of si stava voltando to indicate one point of simul-
taneity, and the simple imperfetto passava for another. As I interpret it, the form si stava
voltando serves to express the simultaneity of the turning with Giorgio's exclamation Un re-
galone!. Meanwhile, Maria was passing behing him: passava. (Note also the passato remoto
fu and fece, both of which t the \discrete event" model.)
The next example is of item 5, taken from Le perfezioni provvisorie by Caro glio.
Uscendo dalla libreria, con l'idea di prendermela comodo ancora per una mezz'ora, vidi
arrivare il signor Ferraro...
\As I was leaving the bookstore, with the idea of taking it easy for another half hour, I
saw the signor Ferraro arriving..." Or literally, \I saw to arrive the signor Ferraro", a use of
the in nitive that doesn't work in English.
Finally, here's an interesting example from Il cavaliere inesistente, one that puzzled me
for some time when I rst saw it. The young Rambaldo is complaining to Agilulfo, the
non-existent knight, that in the early morning his muscles are sometimes sluggish and cold.
\Succede anche a voi?" [chiese Rambaldo.]
\A me no", disse Agilulfo, e gi a gli voltava le spalle, se ne andava.
As far as I can see there is no way to translate gli voltava le spalle and se ne andava with
actual verb conjugations in English. I expected se ne and o here, but if a simple \he left"
was intended, then surely Calvino would have used it. And attempts to use past progressive
yield only a muddle such as \already he was turning away, and he was leaving". And yet
one wants the saying, the turning away and the leaving to be simultaneous. Better, I think,
is to use gerunds:
\Does it happen to you too?" [Rambaldo asked.]
\Not to me," said Agilulfo, turning away and leaving.
An alternative is something like \as he turned away and left", or, taking some liberty
with the translation, \as he turned away and rode o ".
4.7 In the eye of the beholder: the remote, the recent, the present
The existence of two past perfect tenses, passato prossimo and passato remoto, is problematic
for English speakers since we have only one: andai and sono andato are both simply \I went".
The problem is compounded by the unfortunate choice of terms \prossimo" and \remoto".
To quote from [Maiden-Robustelli], x15.16:
\The terms prossimo and remoto are rather misleading, for what is relevant in choosing
between these two forms is not `nearness/remoteness' in time, but the degree of `pyschological
involvement'."
12
Hence in narration, and especially in informal narration, the choice of passato remoto
versus passato prossimo appears to be up to the speaker. As far as I can tell, there are
few|if any|genuine \rules". Furthermore, the past can even be narrated in the present
tense, especially in speech. This mixing of past and present is common in English as well:
\So I'm walking up the trail, just daydreaming, when all of a sudden a bear explodes out of
the bushes and runs away. I just about jumped out of my shoes!" An Italian narrator, on the
other hand, has four degrees of \past-ness" to choose from: remote, recent and present|plus
the imperfetto, although this is a di erent kind of choice. Moreover, the choice may have
no relation whatever to the actual time scale of the events, re
ecting instead the particular
way the speaker wishes to present them.
Here's an interesting and fairly typical example from La ne e il mio inizio by journalist
Tiziano Terzani, illustrating all four possibilities. The book is in the form of a conversation
between Terzani and his son Folco (see the book reviews for more background); here Terzani
talks about smoking opium in Cambodia, during the Vietnam war before the Khmer Rouge
seized power. The opium house he frequents is run by a certain Madame Chantal.
Quando la sera uscivo dall'Hotel Le Phnom, dopo aver scritto il pezzo o nito la mia
giornata prendendo appunti, c'erano gi a tutti questi cyclopousse [bicycle-taxis] pronti, che
chiamavano \Monsieur Moustache! Monsieur Moustache" perch e tutti sapevano dove an-
davo. La cosa divertente fu quando la Mamma venne per la prima volta a Phnom Penh e io
le volli presentare questo mondo mio. Arriviamo con il solito cyclopousse, lo sportellino si
apre, Chantal guarda e fa \Ah, Monsieur Moustache et...Madame Monsieur Moustache!"
La Mamma era diventata Madame Monsieur Moustache!
Sono andato l per alcuni anni, durante tutta la guerra.
\When I would go out in the evening from Hotel Le Phnom, after having written a
piece or having nished my day taking notes, there were already all these cyclopousse ready,
calling \Monsieur Moustache! Monsieur Moustache!" because they all knew where I was
going. The funny thing was when your mother came to Phnom Penh for the rst time and I
wanted to introduce her to this world of mine. We arrive with the cyclopousse as usual, the
little door opens, Chantal looks and says \Ah, Monsieur Moustache et...Madame Monsieur
Moustache!"
Your mother had become Madame Monsieur Moustache!
I went there for several years, throughout the war."
The fact that the episode starts in the imperfetto and then switches to passato remoto
with fu ts our earlier model, transitioning from \continuous" background to a \discrete"
event. Then Terzani switches to the present tense, exactly as an English speaker might do
when telling such a story. Finally \I went" is rendered in the passato prossimo sono andato,
and herein lies the novelty for English speakers. What governs this choice is not entirely
clear to me, but the key point to note is that it has nothing to do with how long ago the
events took place; all of the events in the excerpt took place about thirty years before the
time of the interview.
This jumping around the tenses is common in novels as well. For example, to take one
sequence from Pratolini's Il Quartiere, chapter 11 is in the passato remoto, chapters 12-14
13
are in a combination of present and passato prossimo, and chapter 15 returns to the passato
remoto. Once again it's clear that the choice has little or nothing to do with the actual
distance in time separating the narrator from the events, but is rather a style choice on the
part of the author. Il Quartiere is narrated in the rst-person but Pratolini switches tenses
in a similar way in Le ragazze di Sanfrediano, which is in the third person.
Pavese's La luna e i fal o provides another interesting example. Here the rst-person
narrator is dealing with several principal time periods: (i) reminiscences of his childhood
and adolescence; (ii) adult years in America; (iii) his return to his childhood haunts after the
war. Again the passato remoto, passato prossimo and present tense are used, but it's not
easy to nd any correlation between these three tenses and the aforementioned time periods.
Period (i) is usually in the passato remoto, but often period (ii) is as well, even though (if
I understand correctly) this is the period from which the narrator is telling the story. It all
depends on how the author wants to present it, not on how recent or remote the events may
be.
4.8 Ex post facto: the order of events
By \order of events" I mean constructions of the form \after A, then B" or \having done
A, then B". There are at least two interesting di erences between Italian and English in
this regard. First of all, Italian uses a past participle by itself in a way that isn't allowed in
English, as in the following example from Cassola's I poveri:
Arrivata in chiesa, guard o subito verso il primo banco a sinistra...
\On entering the church, she immediately looked around at the rst row on the left..."
(Translation from [Trevelyan].) Literally \entered the church...", which could be translated
as \having entered the church". But in this case \on entering" is better.
Second, Italian uses an in nitive where English does not, as in the following from Silone's
Vino e pane:
Dopo aver ri
ettuto, egli aggiunse in tono impacciato...
\After re
ecting, he added in an embarassed tone..." Alternatives include \after re
ec-
tion" or \having re
ected", but of course not the literal \after to have re
ected".
One other di erence of note is that the literal translation of \having re
ected", avendo
ri
ettuto, cannot be used as above, i.e. to indicate \after". It is only used in the sense of
\since" or \because", as in the following example from the grammar text [Kinder-Savini]:
Il magistrato, non avendo riscontrato prove concrete, chiuse l'indagine. \The magistrate,
having found no concrete evidence, closed the investigation." In other words, because he
found no such evidence, he closed the investigation.
4.9 Semantic mutation
Sometimes the passato remoto (or prossimo) and imperfetto of a verb have di erent mean-
ings; I call this \semantic mutation" (just for fun, really). In fact the mutations are rather
14
mild, and in one way or another t with the remoto/imperfetto metaphors given in the in-
troduction. As far as I know, mutations of this type occur with only a handful of verbs, but
they are very common ones.
4.9.1 Sapere
Sapeva usually means \knew"; seppe usually means \found out", \learned", \heard". The
following example from La luna e i fal o is instructive on several counts:
Con me attacc o discorso civilmente; sapeva di dove venivo; mi chiese se ero stato anche
in Francia, e beveva il ca e scostando il mignolo e piegandosi avanti.
\He politely struck up a conversation with me; he knew where I came from; he asked me
if I had also been to France, and drank his co ee sticking out his little nger and leaning
forward."
Contrast this with the following from Vino e pane, by Ignazio Silone:
Poi seppi che, su denunzia del consolato italiano, egli era stato espulso dalla Francia.
\Then I learned that, having been denounced by the Italian consulate, he was expelled
from France." To some extent this contrast ts with the discrete/continuous model, since
`to nd out" is a discrete instance, i.e. localized in time, of the continuous \to know". As
usual, the passato prossimo di ers from the imperfetto in exactly the same way, e.g. (again
from Vino e pane):
\Novit a di Bianchina?" disse Cristina.
\Una notizia curiosa," disse don Paolo, \Ho saputo di una relazione amorosa tra quella
ragazza e suo fratello Alberto."
\Any news of Bianchina?" said Cristina.
\Some curious news," said don Paolo, \I heard [found out, learned] about a love a air
between that girl and your brother Alberto."
4.9.2 Conoscere
A similar semantic mutation occurs with conoscere: In the passato remoto/prossimo it usu-
ally means \to meet" (i.e. a person, usually) and in the imperfetto \to know", in the sense \to
be acquainted with" a person or thing. Again this ts loosely with the discrete/continuous
model, since to meet someone is to know them for the rst time, a discrete event. The
following example is from the same conversation between don Paolo and Cristina (the latter
is speaking).
In quanto a Bianchina mi permetto solo di ricordarle le circostanze un po' speciali in cui
lei l'ha conosciuta.
\As far as Bianchina, I'll only allow myself to remind you of the rather special circum-
stances in which you met her."
15
Contrast this with the following example from Ginzburg's La madre:
La madre aveva posato sul tavolo la sua sciarpa scozzese e la vecchia borsetta di coccodrillo
che conoscevano bene.
\The mother had put on the table her scottish scarf and the old crocodile-skin purse that
they [her children] knew well."
On the other hand, the passato remoto/prossimo can also be used for \to know" in the
sense of \to experience", as in \it was then that he knew real hunger", or more famously as
in the King James Bible when a man and a woman lieth together and \know" each other.
Here's an example from La ragazza di Bube, by Carlo Cassola:
\Bube caro," disse lei appoggiandogli la testa sulla spalla. E di nuovo conobbero le dolcezze
dell'amore tenero e a ettuoso.
\Bube darling," she said, resting her head on his shoulder. And once more they knew
[experienced] the sweetness of tender, a ectionate love."
In this instance the reference is not to actually knowing each other in the biblical sense:
No Bube, no...Non bisogna farlo...Non siamo ancora sposati.
4.9.3 Dovere
The auxiliary verbs dovere undergoes a somewhat di erent semantic mutation. According to
[Proudfoot-Cardo], the imperfetto form doveva is equivalent to avrebbe dovuto, and therefore
correspond at least approximately to English \should have", whereas dovette means \had to".
But these interpretations are oversimpli ed and not supported by the empirical evidence.
Many other intepretations are possible; it depends on the context.
Consider rst the following example from Vino e pane:
Dopo una pessima annata, in cui tutto il raccolto and o perduto, mio padre dovette vendere
una vigna che sta dietro il castello del paese.
\After a bad year, in which the entire harvest was lost, my father had to sell a vinyard
that lies behind the town castle." This is a typical use of the remoto/prossimo, with the
meaning of \had to". But sometimes a slightly di erent English translation is needed. For
instance, in Il Quartiere Pratolini frequently uses dovere in the following way:
Ebbi un colpo al petto, umiliato dei miei calzoni corti, del mio volto quindicenne con
appena la peluria nera sulle labra. Dovetti accendermi in volto.
\I felt my chest tighten [better translation?], humiliated by my short pants and my
fteen-year old face with only a little black fuzz on my upper lip. I must have turned red."
In this case \I had to turn red" de nitely doesn't work; \I had to have turned red" is possible
but too clumsy.
16
Now consider the following excerpt from Calvino's short story L'avventura di un soldato.2
Doveva lui, Tomagra, rispettare questo sonno, vero o nto che fosse, e ritrarsi? O era un
espediente di donna complice, ch'egli avrebbe dovuto gi a conoscere, e di cui doveva in qualche
modo mostrare gratitudine?
\Should he, Tomagra, respect this sleeping, real or fake though it might be, and draw
back? Or was it a ruse of feminine complicity, which he should have already recognized, and
for which he should in some way show his gratitude?"
Here the \should" interpretation is certainly correct, but one has to pay attention to
the tense. The two instances of doveva are de nitely not translated as \should have" in
English, despite the past tense. This is somewhat similar to the tense-shifting in the past
conditional discussed in x2, except that now the English and Italian past conditionals avrebbe
dovuto and \should have" line up perfectly, and the tense-shifting occurs between \should"
and \doveva". If we follow the model given in [Proudfoot-Cardo], doveva above could be
replaced by avrebbe dovuto, thereby making an exact analogy with x2, but I doubt that this
would be correct.
It appears that the \must have" interpretation of dovette can, at least in some cases, be
achieved by doveva. Here are two examples from Vino e pane:
1. ...ma dove erano i ciliegi? Dove il noce? Lo zio che aveva in consegna la vigna, doveva
averli fatti abbattere.
2. Di quell'arrivo alla locanda don Paolo non serb o altro ricordo. Doveva essere stordito
e stanco morto.
1. \...but where were the cherry trees? Where was the walnut tree? The uncle who had
custody of the vinyard must have chopped them down."
2. \Don Paolo retained no other memory of his arrival at the inn. He must have been
dazed and dead tired."
Comparing these two examples with dovetti accendermi in volto above, the di erence
can be explained using several of the metaphors from the introduction. The \turning red"
is a discrete, or bounded, or closed event. Don Paolo's being dazed and tired is a more
continuous, less bounded, open event. Similarly the chopping down of the trees, even if it
was a discrete event at the time, cannot be so construed because of the speculative nature
of the statement. Or perhaps these tense choices are just personal choices by the writer, but
it certainly is not true that doveva in itself implies \should". It depends on the context.
4.9.4 Potere
Here [Proudfoot-Cardo] translate pot e and poteva as \was able to" and \could have" respec-
tively, and say that poteva can be replaced by avrebbe potuto. As with dovere, this isn't
always true; it depends on the context. An example from Vino e pane:
2This belongs to a collection of stories entitled Gli amori di cili. They're very clever and fun to read.
17
Don Paolo manteneva gli occhi chiusi; ma dal rumore delle ruote egli pot e riconoscere
quando la carrozzella fu sull'acciottolato della piazzetta di Orta.
\Don Paolo kept his eyes closed, but from the noise of the wheels he was able to recognize
when the little carriage was on the cobblestones of the small square of Orta."
Of course, in English one can often use \could" interchangeably with \was able to", and
sometimes the former seems better for its brevity. Consider the following from L'avventura
di un soldato:
...a ogni modo lei non si tir o indietro, almeno per quel che pot e capire lui!
\...in any case she didn't shrink back, at least as far as he could tell!" Here \was able to
tell" is also possible.
Turning to poteva, we encounter the same tense-shifting di culty occuring with doveva,
plus the fact that \could" and \might" are often used interchangeably in English. From the
same Calvino story we have:
A pensarci, per o, quel suo non far caso alla mobile mano di Tomagra poteva voler dire
che veramente credesse ad una vana ricerca in quella tasca: d'un biglietto ferrovario, d'un
ammifero...
\On second thought, however, her not paying attention to the wandering hand of Tomagra
could mean that she really believed it was a fruitless searching in that pocket: for a train
ticket, a match..."
Here \might mean" is an alternative. The past conditional \could have meant" is cer-
tainly grammatically possible, but in this passage Tomagra is still ddling around in his
pocket, and I think \could mean" is better. On the other hand, poteva can also mean \was
able to", as in the following from Vino e pane:
Don Paolo poteva riconoscere ogni casa, ogni camino, ogni nestra, ogni orto.
\Don Paolo was able to recognize every house, every chimney, every window, every gar-
den." Here \could have recognized" would clearly be wrong, and we see that \was able to"
is not exclusive to pot e /ha potuto. The choice of imperfetto here surely just corresponds
to the usual \continuous action" model, as opposed to the more discrete events of the pot e
examples above.
4.9.5 Volere
Here there is a di erent kind of mutation. The remoto/prossimo usually imply that the
thing wanted was in fact obtained, whereas in the imperfetto it was not or may not have
been obtained. I think of this as tting with the bounded/unbounded model: In the former
case the wanting comes to end, in the latter maybe not. An example from Il quartiere:
Gino volle restare per vedere il lm ancora una volta; e siccome anche Giorgio ci lasci o
perch e sua madre aveva bisogno di lui, eravamo rimasti i due avversari paci cati ed io.
18
\Gino wanted to stay and see the lm one more time; and since Giorgio left us becausse
his mother needed him, there remained just the two paci ed adversaries and me."
As the context makes clear even in the English version, Gino not only wanted to stay;
he did. In the Italian this is also implied by the conjugation volle rather than voleva. The
imperfetto tends to imply that the thing wanted was not obtained, e.g. from Vino e pane:
Mio fratello voleva ricomprare la stessa vigna, a causa di essa fece omicidio e n all'ergastolo.
\My brother wanted to buy the vinyard back, and because of it committed murder and
received a life sentence." He wanted to, but it never happened.
19Italian meets the fourth dimension: tense and time
1. Introduction
2. Past conditional
3. Back to the future
4. Past tenses in narration: an empirical study
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Habitual action use of the imperfetto
4.3. Scene-setting
4.4. Scene-framing
4.5. \Fu" or \era"?
4.6. Relativity theory: expressing simultaneity
4.7. In the eye of the beholder: the remote, the recent, the present
4.8. Ex post facto: the ordering of events
4.9. Semantic mutations
1 Introduction
Most European languages (all, as far as I know) use speci c verb \tenses" to distinguish past,
present and future. However, the tenses don't match as neatly with the times as one might
hope. Both English and Italian, for example, frequently use the present tense to indicate
future events. Both languages even use the past tense to indicate the future, although not
in the same way, and Italian can use the future tense to indicate the past (see \Back to the
future" below). And then there is the peculiar English use of the present progressive for the
future, made even more peculiar when it incorporates \to go" (e.g. the self-contradictory
\tomorrow I'm going to stay in bed"). In any case, the obvious corollary is that the tenses
of the two languages usually don't align neatly with each other. In this chapter I'll consider
some of the more interesting ways in which time and tense di er.
It seems to be generally true that the past tense has the greatest variation from language
to language. In Hungarian, for example, there is essentially only one past tense, and I've
been told that the many past tenses in English are confusing to Hungarians. English speakers
have a similar di culty with Italian, which has variants of the past tense that either don't
exist at all in English, or correlate inconsistently with their English counterparts. The
most obvious example is the distinction between passato remoto and passato prossimo in
Italian, a dichotomy which has no analog in English, but this isn't the hard case. The
trickiest by far is the choice between passato remoto and imperfetto (mainly in writing), or
equivalently between passato prossimo and imperfetto (mainly in speech). The trouble is
that the imperfetto corresponds to at least four di erent constructions in English: depending
on the context. For instance dormiva could be used in the Italian equivalents of \he slept",
\he was sleeping", \in those days he would sleep until noon", or \I saw a cat sleeping in the
middle of the road." (In the last case \un gatto che dormiva"; in a sense English useage no.
4 is equivalent to no. 2, except that we are lazy and contract \a cat that was sleeping" to
\a cat sleeping". This can't be done in Italian; see below.)
1
In any case, I nd the system of (passato remoto) + (imperfetto) quite elegant and
indeed it's probably my second favorite part of Italian grammar, after the subjunctive. For
this reason, the bulk of this chapter is devoted to analyzing the puzzle of passato remoto
versus imperfetto, especially the cases in which both would be translated by the simple past
in English. This two-to-one mapping causes little trouble in reading, but to write you have
to invert it, and therein lies the challenge.
Other topics considered include expressing the simultaneity of events, the order of events
(after X, then Y) and certain cases|dubbed \semantic mutations"|where the imperfetto
and passato remoto/prossimo di er in meaning as well as in time.
2 Past conditional
One of the most striking features of Italian is that it uses the past conditional where the
other Romance languages would use the present conditional, as does English. Neither French,
Spanish, Portuguese nor Romanian follow the Italian system. Since the di erence can lead to
considerable confusion, it ought to be pointed out forcefully in textbooks. To date, however,
[Maiden-Robustelli] is the only source I've found that gives it the emphasis it deserves,
putting it on page 1 of their chapter on \uses of the verb forms". Here's a typical example,
from the short story I poveri by Carlo Cassola:
La signorina promise che ci avrebbe messo uno buona parola.
In English this would be translated with the present conditional: \The signorina promised
that she would put in a good word." But Italian uses the past conditional: literally,
\promised that she would have put in a good word". Another example from La bella estate:
Si lasciarono cos male che si capiva che Amelia non gliel'avrebbe perdonata. Ma Ginia
che da principio alz o le spalle, un bel momento ebbe paura all'idea che Amelia l'avrebbe presa
in giro con Guido e Rodrigues...
\They parted on such bad terms that it was clear Amelia wouldn't forgive her [literally,
would not have forgiven her]. At rst Ginia shrugged it o , then for a moment panicked at
the thought that Amelia would make fun of her [literally, would have made fun of her] with
Guido and Rodrigues..."
In certain constructions the past tense occurs in English, but without the \would". The
following is from the short story I passi sulla neve by Mario Soldati (where in this case I've
borrowed the translation from [Trevelyan]; see the book reviews):
Passeggi o sotto i portici senza proporsi una meta. Quando si sarebbe sentito stanco,
sarebbe entrato in un ca e: ecco tutto. Ma tornare in albergo, rivedere sua moglie, no, non
ancora.
\He strolled aimlessly along under the arcades. When he felt tired he would turn into a
caf e: that was it. But to go back to the hotel and see his wife again|no, not yet." Literally:
\When he would have felt tired he would have entered a caf e".
2
The confusion (for English speakers) is compounded in the past conditional form of the
periodo ipotetico, i.e. se + Congiuntivo Trapassato + Condizionale Composto, which has
three di erent interpretations depending on the context. The rst runs exactly parallel to
English, as in the following from I passi sulla neve:
Se non fosse stato per le musiche, i canti, le risate, le berciate e gli applausi che venivano
dai televisori delle case lungo le quali stava camminando, avrebbe pensato di attraversare un
paese abbandonato.
\If it hadn't been for the music, the songs, the laughter, the bawling and the applause
coming from the televisions of the houses next to which he was walking, he would have
thought he was passing through an abandoned village."
However, the same form is also used where English would again use the present condi-
tional. An example from L'eretico by Carlo Martigli:
Non era un caso che gli fosse toccato il nome Cesare, un nome cui avrebbe dato nuovo
lustro. Sarebbe stato Cesare non solo di nome ma anche di fatto. Un giorno, se fosse stato
necessario, avrebbe varcato il Rubicone.
\It wasn't by chance that he had been named Caesar, a name to which he would give
new glory. He would be Caesar not only in name but also in fact. One day, if it should prove
necessary, he would cross the Rubicon."
Note that the literal translation e.g. (*) \if it had been necessary, he would have crossed
the Rubicon" changes the meaning completely. The interesting point is that the Italian can
also be interpreted this way. In another context, se fosse stato necessario, avrebbe varcato
il Rubicone could in fact be translated by (*) above. In the present context, however, it is
clear that the nefarious Cesare is imagining his future rise to power.
Surprisingly, the past form above can also be used for the future. According to a textbook
example, one can say:
Se domani avessi potuto, sarei venuto to mean \If I could come tomorrow, I would".
Literally, \If tomorrow I could have, I would have come".
In any case, every Italian textbook|at least those written with speakers of English or
of other Romance languages in mind|ought to emphasize the divergent uses of the past
conditional.
3 Back to the future
As in English, the present tense is often used in place of the future, if the future aspect
is already understood: \Tomorrow we go to the zoo" or Domani andiamo allo zoo. One
peculiar feature of English is the use of the present progressive \to go" for future actions:
\tomorrow we're going to the zoo", the redundant \tomorrow we're going to go to the zoo",
or even the illogical \tomorrow we're going to clean the house" (in which case we're not
going anywhere). As far as I know, the Italian present progressive stare + gerund is never
used in this way.
3
Most strikingly, Italian uses the future perfect (future auxiliary + past participle) to
indicate conjectural past events, as in avranno perso il treno e.g. as a response to someone
failing to show up for a meeting. In English this could be variously translated as \they
must have missed the train", `they probably missed the train" and so on. At any rate the
logical structure is clear, and makes sense: \They will have missed the train" is short for
\In the future, when we nd out what happened, it will probably turn out that they missed
the train." On the other hand, there is no one systematic way to translate this useage into
English. Consider the following example from Il sentiero dei nidi di ragno by Calvino, with
ve occurences of the future perfect (Pin is a young boy who has fallen in with an anti-fascist
partisan nicknamed \Red Wolf"):
Pin si scuote di soprassalto: quanto avr a dormito? Intorno a lui e notte fonda. E
Lupo Russo perch e non e tornato ancora? Avr a incontrato una pattuglia e sar a stato preso?
Oppure sar a tornato e l'avr a chiamato mentre dormiva e se ne sar a andato credendo che lui
non ci sia pi u.
\Pin shakes himself with a start: How long has he been asleep? Around him it is the
dead of night. And why hasn't Red Wolf returned yet? Could he have run into a patrol
and been captured? Or he could have returned and called to him while he was sleeping, and
then left thinking that he wasn't there anymore."
After certain time conjunctions such as \when", English always uses the present or even
the past tense for the future, whereas Italian requires the future or the futuro anteriore. The
following example, from Calvino's short story L'aria buona is fairly typical. The doctor has
recommended fresh air for Marcovaldo's sick kids. Marcovaldo suggests that the best place
to send the kids is \per la strada", prompting the following response from his long-su ering
wife:
\Aria buona la prenderemo," concluse la moglie, \quando saremo sfrattati e dovremo
dormire allo stellato."
\We'll have fresh air alright," concluded his wife, \when we've been evicted and we have
to sleep under the stars." Literally, \when we will have been evicted and we will have to
sleep under the stars".
Other textbook examples:
Io canter o mentre tu suonerai.
\I'll sing while you play [literally, while you will play]."
Te lo dir o appena lo sapr o.
\I'll tell you as soon as I know [literally \as soon as I will know"].
4 Past tenses in narration: An empirical study
1. Introduction
2. Habitual action use of the imperfetto
3. Scene-scetting
4
4. Scene-framing
5. \Fu" or \era"?
6. Relativity theory: expressing simultaneity
7. Ex post facto: the ordering of events
8. Semantic mutation
4.1 Introduction
Italian novels are most often narrated in a combination of passato remoto and imperfetto,
where these two tenses are employed in a way that has no parallel in English. As discussed
below, there are several uses of the imperfetto that very closely parallel the past progressive
or other habitual-action forms in English, but in Italian it can also be used where English
would use the simple past. Thus Italian e ectively has two past tenses where English has
one, and it is an interesting challenge for an English speaker to gure out when to use which,
and why. To some extent the choice appears to be up to the author, and is decided more by
guidelines than by any strict rule. So I won't even attempt to formulate such rules. Instead
I'll take the approach of a naturalist observing wildlife in the eld, and report what I can of
the nature of the beast.
The above remarks notwithstanding, some conceptual framework is essential. Mixing my
metaphors a bit, the following proposed pairings should be viewed in mathematical lingo as
rst-order approximations only. The pairs are supposed to correspond to remoto/imperfetto.
discrete/continuous
bounded/unbounded
closed/open
external/internal
The rst three are motivated by a combination of everyday English and mathematical
terminology. The last item, external/internal, is taken from [Maiden-Robustelli]. All will
be illustrated in context below. At the end of the day, however, the choice of metaphor is
highly personal; my suggestion for other Italian learners is to nd one that works for you.
Other aspects of time include simultaneity|while A, B|and sequencing|after A, then
B. Here too there are interesting di erences between Italian and English. Finally I discuss
\semantic mutation", i.e. the fact that certain verbs change meaning between the imperfetto
and the passato remoto/prossimo.
4.2 Habitual action use of the imperfetto
In principle, habitual action use of the imperfetto is exactly analogous to the English \would
+ in nitive" or sometimes \used + in nitive": \Every Sunday he would go to church", \when
I was younger I used to go climbing every week", etc. As with the English past progressive,
however, continuous repetition of \would" or \used" every time in a long paragraph becomes
tedious, and one tends to switch to the simple past to avoid monotony. In Italian one
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can simply switch back and forth between imperfetto and passato remoto. Here's a pretty
example from Pavese's La luna e i fal o:
Cos venne l'inverno e cadde molta neve e il Belbo gel o|si stava al caldo in cucina o nella
stalla, c'era soltanto da spalare il cortile e davanti al cancello, si andava a prendere un'altra
fascina|o bagnavo i salici per Cirino, portavo l'acqua, giocavo alle biglie coi ragazzi. Venne
Natale, Capodanno, l'Epifania; si arrostivano le castagne, tirammo il vino, mangiammo
due volte il tacchino e una l'oca. La signora, le glie, il sor Matteo si facevano attacare il
biroccio per andare a Canelli; una volta portarono a casa del torrone e ne diedero all'Emilia.
La domenica andavo a messa in paese coi ragazzi del Salto, con le donne, e portavamo il
pane a cuocere. La collina di Gaminella era brulla, bianca di neve, la vedevo in mezzo ai
rami secchi di Belbo.
\So winter came and much snow fell and the Belbo froze|one would stay warm in the
kitchen or in the stable, one only had to shovel the yard and in front of the gate, one
would go to get another log [for the re]|or I watered the willows for Cirino, carried water,
played marbles with the boys. Christmas, New Year, and Epiphany came; they would roast
chestnuts, we pulled wine, we ate turkey twice and once a goose. The signora, the girls, and
the signor Matteo would have the biroccio [a small horse-drawn carriage] hooked up to go
to Canelli; one time they brought home some torrone [a kind of nougat] and gave some to
Emilia. On Sundays I would go to mass in the village with the kids from Salto, with the
women, and we would bring bread to bake. The hill of Gaminella would be bare, white with
snow, I would see it in the middle of the dry branches of the Belbo."
In this translation I chose to use the \would" form for the imperfetto almost everywhere
except in the phrase beginning \...or I watered..." It could have been used there, too, but
one does begin to tire of would, would, would over and over again.1 The Italian approach is
more elegant: imperfetto for the habitual actions, with passato remoto inserted to indicate
discrete events such as una volta portarono a casa, \one time they brought home".
The previous example is a self-contained scene of daily life in winter. The imperfetto is
also used, sometimes at length, in establishing background for a story. (This is not the same
as \scene-setting", to be described later.) Consider for example the short story La madre by
Natalia Ginsburg. It begins with six and a half pages of imperfetto before the rst, rather
abrupt occurence of passato remoto: Un giorno ch'erano andati a fare una passeggiata...,
al ritorno videro la madre in un ca e di periferia. From there on the narration takes place
in the usual mix of passato remoto and imperfetto. But the English translation of the
long imperfetto section (for example the translation in [Trevelyan]; see the book reviews)
uses mainly the simple past, and necessarily so: the only alternative is the habitual-action
\would" form, which once again is too tedious. I like the way the translator (Isabel Quigley)
uses the \would" form, but only sparingly. For example, simple descriptions such as La
madre al mattino andava a fare la spesa are best rendered as \In the morning their mother
went to do the shopping", not \would go to do the shopping". On the other hand in a
few well-chosen cases the latter works well: certe volte rientrava molto tardi, i ragazzi si
1For the same reason, Italian novels and even short stories shouldn't be written in the passato prossimo.
The constant repetition of auxiliaries is too monotonous.
6
svegliavano allora \sometimes she came in very late, and the boys would wake up", or Li
prendeva sulle ginocchia e diceva nel suo dialetto delle parole tenere e come un poco pietose,
\She [the grandma] would take them [the boys] on her knee and say tender and slightly
pitiful-sounding words in dialect".
Or in Pratolini's novel Il Quartiere, Chapter 1 sets the scene in the imperfetto, while
Chapter 2 begins Un giorno Arrigo prese a pugni Carlo... In English the opening phrase
\One day..." by itself signals the beginning of the action, just as in the Ginzburg example;
in Italian this is neatly reinforced by the switch to passato remoto. In contrast, Chapter 1
is an introduction to life in the Quartiere di Santa Croce, for instance:
Si usciva dal lavoro dopo le sei di pomeriggio; e non esisteva vera vita, societ a vera,
calore, se non quando eravamo delle nostre strade e piazze...Anche coloro che lavoravano
nelle fabbriche della periferia, pedalavano veloci sui viali per raggiungere il Quartiere e godere
la serata che gli apparteneva.
\One left work after six in the afternoon; and true life, true society and warmth didn't
exist until we were in our own streets and plazas...Those who worked in the factories of the
suburbs also pedaled fast through the streets to reach the Quartiere and enjoy the evening
that belonged to them."
Here again one could say \one would leave work", but this certainly isn't necessary.
4.3 Scene-setting
The imperfetto is often used to \set the scene" for subsequent action. Here English uses
either the simple past or the past progressive, with the choice between them sometimes a
matter of taste. In Italian there is no grammatical di erence between \background" as in
the previous section and \scene-setting"; both use the imperfetto. In English this is only
true if one sticks to the simple past; the habitual-action \would" and the past progressive
are not interchangeable.
The following example is from L'Eretico by Carlo Martigli:
Un uomo di poco pi u di vent'anni sedeva in fondo alla taverna del Sole, situata in uno
dei vicoli pi u scuri e stretti di Firenze, a pochi passi dal mercato. Beveva a lunghi sorsi, e le
gocce che cadevano dal boccale di peltro rigavano di viola l'uniforme gialla di guardia della
repubblica. Vide entrare un altro giovane...
\A man a little over twenty was sitting in the back of the Sun Tavern, situated in one
of the darkest, narrowest alleys of Firenze, a short way from the market. He was drinking
in long gulps, and the drops that fell from the pewter mug left purple lines on the yellow
uniform of a republican guard. He saw another young man come in..."
Thus the imperfetto sets the scene, up to the passato remoto vide where the action
begins. The only di erence in the English translation, at least as I would render it above, is
that in English the constant repetition of past progressives \was sitting, was drinking, were
falling, were leaving purple lines" quickly becomes tedious. \He was drinking in long gulps"
already establishes the progressive nature of the action, and there is no need to repeat it.
7
Alternatively one could use the gerund directly in the form \...and the drops falling from the
pewter mug..." (One has to be careful, however, with the Italian gerund; see below.) One
could also use the simple past: \A man...sat in the back" and \He drank in long gulps...",
although I prefer the past progressive version as above.
In the next example, the opening of Calvino's short story L'avventura di un lettore, I
prefer to use the simple past:
La strada litoranea, sul capo, passava alta; il mare era laggi u a strapiombo e dappertutto
intorno, no all'orizzonte alto e sfumato. Anche il sole era dappertutto, come se il cielo e il
mare fossero due lenti che lo ingrandivano. L a sotto, contro il frastagli irregolari degli scogli
del capo, l'acqua calma batteva senza spuma. Amedeo Oliva scese una rampa...
\The coastal road ran high along the cape; the sea was below the overhang and everywhere
around, fading nally into the high horizon. The sun too was everywhere, as though the
sky and the sea were two lenses that magni ed it. Below, against the irregular indentations
of the rocks of the cape, the calm water lapped without foam. Amedeo Oliva descended a
ramp..."
I've taken some liberties with this non-literal translation, but for present purposes the
relevant point is the choice of tense. The Italian sets the scene with the imperfetto up to
scese, while in my version of the English, everything is in the simple past. \Magni ed" and
\lapped" could conceivably be put in the past progressive, but I prefer the translation as is.
Once again, I nd the Italian system elegant and attractive.
4.4 Scene-framing
Some authors use a technique similar to scene-setting that I'll call \scene-framing". Whether
it is really a conscious technique, or just something they do automatically, I have no idea.
Here the closed/open analogy is particularly apt; the action is narrated in a long \open
interval" in the imperfetto, bounded at both ends by the remoto to form a \closed interval".
I'll give two examples; the passages are too long to quote in full so I'll quote only enough to
give the idea. The remoto is given in boldface; everything inbetween is in imperfetto. The
rst example is condensed from two long paragraphs in La Bella Estate.
Quel pomeriggio fu il pi u bello che Ginia avesse mai passato. Aveva solo paura che
arrivasse Amelia...Guido e Rodrigues discutevano sempre e ogni tanto Guido la guardava
ridendo...Era una discussione di pittura e Guido parlava con furia...Rodrigues...stava zitto
o rideva come un galletto...quando [Guido] diceva qualcosa, faceva piacere sentirlo.
Fuori, sui tetti, faceva ancora un po' di sole...Ginia...pensava che sarebbe stato bello,
nascosta l a dietro a insaputa di tutti, spiare qualcuno che si credesse solo nella stanza. In
quel momento Guido disse: |Fa freddo. Ce n' e ancora del t e?
Summarizing: \That afternoon was the nicest that Ginia had ever experienced....[long
description of Guido and Rodrigues conversing about painting, Guido
irting with Ginia,
the view from the upstairs window, Ginia daydreaming, etc.]...Just then Guido said: `It's
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cold. Is there any more tea?' " The external/internal metaphor suggested by [Maiden-
Robustelli] also works well here. Within the \open interval" of the imperfetto we're seeing
the internal view, Ginia's view. At the boundary points of the \closed interval", the external
world intrudes (quite literally at the end, interrupting Ginia's reverie). In the imperfetto
section an English translation could include many past progressives and habitual actions,
e.g. \...Guido and Rodrigues were constantly discussing and every so often Guido would look
at her laughing..." But in many places English would use the simple past, e.g. \...[Ginia]
thought how nice it would be..."
An example from Il cavaliere inesistente, again with much of the \scene" omitted:
Il giovane prese per gli accampamenti. Era l'ora incerta che precede l'alba. Si notava
tra i padiglioni un primo muoversi di gente...Incontrava paladini gi a chiusi nelle loro corazze
lustre...Ma i due che egli stava seguendo...erano certo due grandi comandanti. Il giovane
corse a presentarsi a loro...
\The young man [Rambaldo] headed for the encampment. It was the uncertain hour that
precedes the dawn. Among the pavilions one could discern the rst stirring of people...He
encountered knights already enclosed in their shining armor...But the two that he was fol-
lowing...were certainly two great commanders. The young man ran to to introduce himself
to them."
Thus the action verbs prese and corse frame the descriptive scene.
As a side note I point out that immediately following the scene quoted above, Calvino
switches abruptly to the present tense for a while. I nd this technique to be contrived and
annoying in any language, but it seems to be a common practice among Italian authors (see
4.7 below).
4.5 \Fu" or \era"?
The verb essere is a particularly interesting case, because with only occasional exceptions the
English translation of the remoto fu and imperfetto era is simply \was". (Constructions such
as \he was being obstinate" or \on winter days, she would often be sad" are certainly possible,
but comparatively rare in practice.) The discrete/continuous model applies reasonably well
here: fu refers to a discrete event or state, era to the continous case. The \discrete event"
model is perfectly illustrated in the following example from the short story L'avventura di
un viaggiatore by Calvino:
Per un attimo, Federico V. fu colto dal sentimento d'invidia che gli avevano sempre
ispirato le persone dall'aria pi u pratica e vitale della sua; ma fu un'impressione istantanea,
che subito cancell o...
\For a moment, Federico V. was seized by the feeling of envy that people with a more
practical, vital manner than his had always inspired in him; but it was a
eeting impression,
that he immediately erased..."
A similar example from I passi sulla neve:
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Quando fu in un viale del parco, si ferm o...
\When he reached [was in] an avenue in the park, he stopped..." See also the example
above Quel pomeriggio fu....
These uses of fu should be contrasted with the much more common era, used for general
descriptions, ongoing states, habitual actions and the like. Some random examples from I
passi sulla neve:
C'era un ca e ancora aperto...La villa era a pochi passi...Il parco era molto grande...
To conclude, here's an interesting example from La luna e i fal o. A group of boys who
are supposed to be working sneak down to the river to goof o and go swimming.
Era qui che mi vantavo del mio soprannome di Anguilla, e fu allora che Nicoletto per
l'invidia disse che ci avrebbe fatto la spia e cominci o a chiamarmi bastardo.
\It was here that I would boast about my nickname \the Eel", and it was then that
Nicoletto, out of envy, said that he would tell on us and started calling me a bastard."
4.6 Relativity theory: expressing simultaneity
According to Einstein's theory of relativity, not only is it di cult to decide whether or not
two events are simultaneous; worse, the concept of \simultaneity" is not even well-de ned.
However, for practical purposes this is only a problem when two observers|Italian speakers,
let's say|are moving relative to each other at a velocity near the speed of light. In my
experience, this situation rarely arises, so we will assume that simultaneity makes sense and
consider how it is expressed in Italian.
A variety of constructions are used to indicate the simultaneity of two events, and al-
though there are some similarities with English, there are signi cant di erences as well. The
principal constructions are:
1. the imperfetto, used as a past progressive as in English
2. the imperfetto of stare + gerund, as in stava parlando
3. the gerund, used as in English but with one key restriction: the subject-agreement rule
(explained below).
4. the imperfetto, used where English would use a gerund ( lling the gap left by item 2)
5. the in nitive, used where English would use a gerund or a past progressive
Since the ve types are often found together in various combinations, rather than go
through them one by one I'll proceed by example. Consider rst the following, from Pavese's
La bella estate:
Mentre bevevano, Guido le raccont o che quelle tazze erano un regalo di una ragazza come
lei, che veniva a trovarlo per farsi fare il ritratto. \ E dov' e questo ritratto?" chiese Ginia.
\Non era mica una modella," disse Guido ridendo.
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\While they were drinking, Guido told her that the cups were a gift from a girl like her,
who used to come see him to have her portrait done. \And where is this portrait?" asked
Ginia. \She wasn't exactly a model", said Guido laughing."
Here the imperfetto mentre bevevano ts well with \while they were drinking" (although
\while they drank" is also possible); the combination \mentre + imperfetto" is very common
and illustrates type 1. The gerund ridendo functions as in English to indicate that the saying
and the laughing occur together. (On the other hand, the imperfetto veniva is certainly not a
past progressive; it has to be rendered di erently. Thus the interpretation of the imperfetto
is heavily context-dependent, but this is typical of language in general.)
In contrast, the Italian form (imperfetto of stare) + (gerund) is used only as a past
progressive, as far as I know. In particular, types 1 and 2 are generally translated identically
in English, which makes the inverse problem a little tricky. It isn't clear to me when the
choice between types 1 and 2 follows a rule, and when it is just a matter of taste; my
impression is that type 2 serves to emphasize the progressive nature of one action occuring
simultaneously with another. One common instance of type 2 is in sentences of the type \X
was doing Y, when Z". Here's an example from Calvino's short story La cura delle vespe,
one of many amusing tales of the hapless Marcovaldo. Here Marcovaldo has discovered that
wasp stings seem to cure certain ailments, and has opened his own \wasp cure" business. His
son Michelino has gone to get more wasps, but accidentally breaks the nest, with disastrous
results.
Marcovaldo stava dicendo ai suoi pazienti: \Abbiate pazienza, adesso arrivano le vespe,"
quando la porta s'apperse e lo sciame invase la stanza. Nemmeno videro Michelino che
andava a cacciare il capo in un catino d'acqua: tutto la stanza fu piena di vespe...
\Marcovaldo was saying to his patients: \Be patient, the wasps will arrive shortly,"
when the the door opened and the swarm invaded the room. They didn't even see Michelino
running to stick his head in a basin of water: the whole room was full of wasps..."
Here I've tried a non-literal translation of the second sentence, an alternative being
\...Michelino, who went to stick his head..." The main point I want to make with this
translation is that one can not say videro Michelino andando or videro Michelino correndo,
as this would imply that the patients are going/running, not Michelino: the gerund has to
agree with the subject; this is the subject-agreement rule of type. Similarly if I want to
translate \I saw a snake slithering across the road", the literal Vidi un serpente strisciando
attraverso la strada would mean that while I was slithering across the road, I saw a snake.
As in the wasp story, the gerund has to be replaced by che strisciava (type 4).
The next example, from Pratolini's Il Quartiere, is of a slightly di erent character:
\S , e d'oro" rispose Giorgio. \Un regalone!"
Gino si stavo voltando verso lo sposo col bicchiere alzato, forse con l'intenzione di un
brindisi, ma il suo gesto fu brusco, non fece in tempo ad evitare Maria che gli passava di
lato.
\Yes, it's gold," replied Giorgio. \A grand gift!"
11
\Gino was turning toward the groom with his glass raised, perhaps intending a toast, but
the gesture was sudden and he didn't react in time to avoid Maria who was passing beside
him."
The interesting point here is the use of si stava voltando to indicate one point of simul-
taneity, and the simple imperfetto passava for another. As I interpret it, the form si stava
voltando serves to express the simultaneity of the turning with Giorgio's exclamation Un re-
galone!. Meanwhile, Maria was passing behing him: passava. (Note also the passato remoto
fu and fece, both of which t the \discrete event" model.)
The next example is of item 5, taken from Le perfezioni provvisorie by Caro glio.
Uscendo dalla libreria, con l'idea di prendermela comodo ancora per una mezz'ora, vidi
arrivare il signor Ferraro...
\As I was leaving the bookstore, with the idea of taking it easy for another half hour, I
saw the signor Ferraro arriving..." Or literally, \I saw to arrive the signor Ferraro", a use of
the in nitive that doesn't work in English.
Finally, here's an interesting example from Il cavaliere inesistente, one that puzzled me
for some time when I rst saw it. The young Rambaldo is complaining to Agilulfo, the
non-existent knight, that in the early morning his muscles are sometimes sluggish and cold.
\Succede anche a voi?" [chiese Rambaldo.]
\A me no", disse Agilulfo, e gi a gli voltava le spalle, se ne andava.
As far as I can see there is no way to translate gli voltava le spalle and se ne andava with
actual verb conjugations in English. I expected se ne and o here, but if a simple \he left"
was intended, then surely Calvino would have used it. And attempts to use past progressive
yield only a muddle such as \already he was turning away, and he was leaving". And yet
one wants the saying, the turning away and the leaving to be simultaneous. Better, I think,
is to use gerunds:
\Does it happen to you too?" [Rambaldo asked.]
\Not to me," said Agilulfo, turning away and leaving.
An alternative is something like \as he turned away and left", or, taking some liberty
with the translation, \as he turned away and rode o ".
4.7 In the eye of the beholder: the remote, the recent, the present
The existence of two past perfect tenses, passato prossimo and passato remoto, is problematic
for English speakers since we have only one: andai and sono andato are both simply \I went".
The problem is compounded by the unfortunate choice of terms \prossimo" and \remoto".
To quote from [Maiden-Robustelli], x15.16:
\The terms prossimo and remoto are rather misleading, for what is relevant in choosing
between these two forms is not `nearness/remoteness' in time, but the degree of `pyschological
involvement'."
12
Hence in narration, and especially in informal narration, the choice of passato remoto
versus passato prossimo appears to be up to the speaker. As far as I can tell, there are
few|if any|genuine \rules". Furthermore, the past can even be narrated in the present
tense, especially in speech. This mixing of past and present is common in English as well:
\So I'm walking up the trail, just daydreaming, when all of a sudden a bear explodes out of
the bushes and runs away. I just about jumped out of my shoes!" An Italian narrator, on the
other hand, has four degrees of \past-ness" to choose from: remote, recent and present|plus
the imperfetto, although this is a di erent kind of choice. Moreover, the choice may have
no relation whatever to the actual time scale of the events, re
ecting instead the particular
way the speaker wishes to present them.
Here's an interesting and fairly typical example from La ne e il mio inizio by journalist
Tiziano Terzani, illustrating all four possibilities. The book is in the form of a conversation
between Terzani and his son Folco (see the book reviews for more background); here Terzani
talks about smoking opium in Cambodia, during the Vietnam war before the Khmer Rouge
seized power. The opium house he frequents is run by a certain Madame Chantal.
Quando la sera uscivo dall'Hotel Le Phnom, dopo aver scritto il pezzo o nito la mia
giornata prendendo appunti, c'erano gi a tutti questi cyclopousse [bicycle-taxis] pronti, che
chiamavano \Monsieur Moustache! Monsieur Moustache" perch e tutti sapevano dove an-
davo. La cosa divertente fu quando la Mamma venne per la prima volta a Phnom Penh e io
le volli presentare questo mondo mio. Arriviamo con il solito cyclopousse, lo sportellino si
apre, Chantal guarda e fa \Ah, Monsieur Moustache et...Madame Monsieur Moustache!"
La Mamma era diventata Madame Monsieur Moustache!
Sono andato l per alcuni anni, durante tutta la guerra.
\When I would go out in the evening from Hotel Le Phnom, after having written a
piece or having nished my day taking notes, there were already all these cyclopousse ready,
calling \Monsieur Moustache! Monsieur Moustache!" because they all knew where I was
going. The funny thing was when your mother came to Phnom Penh for the rst time and I
wanted to introduce her to this world of mine. We arrive with the cyclopousse as usual, the
little door opens, Chantal looks and says \Ah, Monsieur Moustache et...Madame Monsieur
Moustache!"
Your mother had become Madame Monsieur Moustache!
I went there for several years, throughout the war."
The fact that the episode starts in the imperfetto and then switches to passato remoto
with fu ts our earlier model, transitioning from \continuous" background to a \discrete"
event. Then Terzani switches to the present tense, exactly as an English speaker might do
when telling such a story. Finally \I went" is rendered in the passato prossimo sono andato,
and herein lies the novelty for English speakers. What governs this choice is not entirely
clear to me, but the key point to note is that it has nothing to do with how long ago the
events took place; all of the events in the excerpt took place about thirty years before the
time of the interview.
This jumping around the tenses is common in novels as well. For example, to take one
sequence from Pratolini's Il Quartiere, chapter 11 is in the passato remoto, chapters 12-14
13
are in a combination of present and passato prossimo, and chapter 15 returns to the passato
remoto. Once again it's clear that the choice has little or nothing to do with the actual
distance in time separating the narrator from the events, but is rather a style choice on the
part of the author. Il Quartiere is narrated in the rst-person but Pratolini switches tenses
in a similar way in Le ragazze di Sanfrediano, which is in the third person.
Pavese's La luna e i fal o provides another interesting example. Here the rst-person
narrator is dealing with several principal time periods: (i) reminiscences of his childhood
and adolescence; (ii) adult years in America; (iii) his return to his childhood haunts after the
war. Again the passato remoto, passato prossimo and present tense are used, but it's not
easy to nd any correlation between these three tenses and the aforementioned time periods.
Period (i) is usually in the passato remoto, but often period (ii) is as well, even though (if
I understand correctly) this is the period from which the narrator is telling the story. It all
depends on how the author wants to present it, not on how recent or remote the events may
be.
4.8 Ex post facto: the order of events
By \order of events" I mean constructions of the form \after A, then B" or \having done
A, then B". There are at least two interesting di erences between Italian and English in
this regard. First of all, Italian uses a past participle by itself in a way that isn't allowed in
English, as in the following example from Cassola's I poveri:
Arrivata in chiesa, guard o subito verso il primo banco a sinistra...
\On entering the church, she immediately looked around at the rst row on the left..."
(Translation from [Trevelyan].) Literally \entered the church...", which could be translated
as \having entered the church". But in this case \on entering" is better.
Second, Italian uses an in nitive where English does not, as in the following from Silone's
Vino e pane:
Dopo aver ri
ettuto, egli aggiunse in tono impacciato...
\After re
ecting, he added in an embarassed tone..." Alternatives include \after re
ec-
tion" or \having re
ected", but of course not the literal \after to have re
ected".
One other di erence of note is that the literal translation of \having re
ected", avendo
ri
ettuto, cannot be used as above, i.e. to indicate \after". It is only used in the sense of
\since" or \because", as in the following example from the grammar text [Kinder-Savini]:
Il magistrato, non avendo riscontrato prove concrete, chiuse l'indagine. \The magistrate,
having found no concrete evidence, closed the investigation." In other words, because he
found no such evidence, he closed the investigation.
4.9 Semantic mutation
Sometimes the passato remoto (or prossimo) and imperfetto of a verb have di erent mean-
ings; I call this \semantic mutation" (just for fun, really). In fact the mutations are rather
14
mild, and in one way or another t with the remoto/imperfetto metaphors given in the in-
troduction. As far as I know, mutations of this type occur with only a handful of verbs, but
they are very common ones.
4.9.1 Sapere
Sapeva usually means \knew"; seppe usually means \found out", \learned", \heard". The
following example from La luna e i fal o is instructive on several counts:
Con me attacc o discorso civilmente; sapeva di dove venivo; mi chiese se ero stato anche
in Francia, e beveva il ca e scostando il mignolo e piegandosi avanti.
\He politely struck up a conversation with me; he knew where I came from; he asked me
if I had also been to France, and drank his co ee sticking out his little nger and leaning
forward."
Contrast this with the following from Vino e pane, by Ignazio Silone:
Poi seppi che, su denunzia del consolato italiano, egli era stato espulso dalla Francia.
\Then I learned that, having been denounced by the Italian consulate, he was expelled
from France." To some extent this contrast ts with the discrete/continuous model, since
`to nd out" is a discrete instance, i.e. localized in time, of the continuous \to know". As
usual, the passato prossimo di ers from the imperfetto in exactly the same way, e.g. (again
from Vino e pane):
\Novit a di Bianchina?" disse Cristina.
\Una notizia curiosa," disse don Paolo, \Ho saputo di una relazione amorosa tra quella
ragazza e suo fratello Alberto."
\Any news of Bianchina?" said Cristina.
\Some curious news," said don Paolo, \I heard [found out, learned] about a love a air
between that girl and your brother Alberto."
4.9.2 Conoscere
A similar semantic mutation occurs with conoscere: In the passato remoto/prossimo it usu-
ally means \to meet" (i.e. a person, usually) and in the imperfetto \to know", in the sense \to
be acquainted with" a person or thing. Again this ts loosely with the discrete/continuous
model, since to meet someone is to know them for the rst time, a discrete event. The
following example is from the same conversation between don Paolo and Cristina (the latter
is speaking).
In quanto a Bianchina mi permetto solo di ricordarle le circostanze un po' speciali in cui
lei l'ha conosciuta.
\As far as Bianchina, I'll only allow myself to remind you of the rather special circum-
stances in which you met her."
15
Contrast this with the following example from Ginzburg's La madre:
La madre aveva posato sul tavolo la sua sciarpa scozzese e la vecchia borsetta di coccodrillo
che conoscevano bene.
\The mother had put on the table her scottish scarf and the old crocodile-skin purse that
they [her children] knew well."
On the other hand, the passato remoto/prossimo can also be used for \to know" in the
sense of \to experience", as in \it was then that he knew real hunger", or more famously as
in the King James Bible when a man and a woman lieth together and \know" each other.
Here's an example from La ragazza di Bube, by Carlo Cassola:
\Bube caro," disse lei appoggiandogli la testa sulla spalla. E di nuovo conobbero le dolcezze
dell'amore tenero e a ettuoso.
\Bube darling," she said, resting her head on his shoulder. And once more they knew
[experienced] the sweetness of tender, a ectionate love."
In this instance the reference is not to actually knowing each other in the biblical sense:
No Bube, no...Non bisogna farlo...Non siamo ancora sposati.
4.9.3 Dovere
The auxiliary verbs dovere undergoes a somewhat di erent semantic mutation. According to
[Proudfoot-Cardo], the imperfetto form doveva is equivalent to avrebbe dovuto, and therefore
correspond at least approximately to English \should have", whereas dovette means \had to".
But these interpretations are oversimpli ed and not supported by the empirical evidence.
Many other intepretations are possible; it depends on the context.
Consider rst the following example from Vino e pane:
Dopo una pessima annata, in cui tutto il raccolto and o perduto, mio padre dovette vendere
una vigna che sta dietro il castello del paese.
\After a bad year, in which the entire harvest was lost, my father had to sell a vinyard
that lies behind the town castle." This is a typical use of the remoto/prossimo, with the
meaning of \had to". But sometimes a slightly di erent English translation is needed. For
instance, in Il Quartiere Pratolini frequently uses dovere in the following way:
Ebbi un colpo al petto, umiliato dei miei calzoni corti, del mio volto quindicenne con
appena la peluria nera sulle labra. Dovetti accendermi in volto.
\I felt my chest tighten [better translation?], humiliated by my short pants and my
fteen-year old face with only a little black fuzz on my upper lip. I must have turned red."
In this case \I had to turn red" de nitely doesn't work; \I had to have turned red" is possible
but too clumsy.
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Now consider the following excerpt from Calvino's short story L'avventura di un soldato.2
Doveva lui, Tomagra, rispettare questo sonno, vero o nto che fosse, e ritrarsi? O era un
espediente di donna complice, ch'egli avrebbe dovuto gi a conoscere, e di cui doveva in qualche
modo mostrare gratitudine?
\Should he, Tomagra, respect this sleeping, real or fake though it might be, and draw
back? Or was it a ruse of feminine complicity, which he should have already recognized, and
for which he should in some way show his gratitude?"
Here the \should" interpretation is certainly correct, but one has to pay attention to
the tense. The two instances of doveva are de nitely not translated as \should have" in
English, despite the past tense. This is somewhat similar to the tense-shifting in the past
conditional discussed in x2, except that now the English and Italian past conditionals avrebbe
dovuto and \should have" line up perfectly, and the tense-shifting occurs between \should"
and \doveva". If we follow the model given in [Proudfoot-Cardo], doveva above could be
replaced by avrebbe dovuto, thereby making an exact analogy with x2, but I doubt that this
would be correct.
It appears that the \must have" interpretation of dovette can, at least in some cases, be
achieved by doveva. Here are two examples from Vino e pane:
1. ...ma dove erano i ciliegi? Dove il noce? Lo zio che aveva in consegna la vigna, doveva
averli fatti abbattere.
2. Di quell'arrivo alla locanda don Paolo non serb o altro ricordo. Doveva essere stordito
e stanco morto.
1. \...but where were the cherry trees? Where was the walnut tree? The uncle who had
custody of the vinyard must have chopped them down."
2. \Don Paolo retained no other memory of his arrival at the inn. He must have been
dazed and dead tired."
Comparing these two examples with dovetti accendermi in volto above, the di erence
can be explained using several of the metaphors from the introduction. The \turning red"
is a discrete, or bounded, or closed event. Don Paolo's being dazed and tired is a more
continuous, less bounded, open event. Similarly the chopping down of the trees, even if it
was a discrete event at the time, cannot be so construed because of the speculative nature
of the statement. Or perhaps these tense choices are just personal choices by the writer, but
it certainly is not true that doveva in itself implies \should". It depends on the context.
4.9.4 Potere
Here [Proudfoot-Cardo] translate pot e and poteva as \was able to" and \could have" respec-
tively, and say that poteva can be replaced by avrebbe potuto. As with dovere, this isn't
always true; it depends on the context. An example from Vino e pane:
2This belongs to a collection of stories entitled Gli amori di cili. They're very clever and fun to read.
17
Don Paolo manteneva gli occhi chiusi; ma dal rumore delle ruote egli pot e riconoscere
quando la carrozzella fu sull'acciottolato della piazzetta di Orta.
\Don Paolo kept his eyes closed, but from the noise of the wheels he was able to recognize
when the little carriage was on the cobblestones of the small square of Orta."
Of course, in English one can often use \could" interchangeably with \was able to", and
sometimes the former seems better for its brevity. Consider the following from L'avventura
di un soldato:
...a ogni modo lei non si tir o indietro, almeno per quel che pot e capire lui!
\...in any case she didn't shrink back, at least as far as he could tell!" Here \was able to
tell" is also possible.
Turning to poteva, we encounter the same tense-shifting di culty occuring with doveva,
plus the fact that \could" and \might" are often used interchangeably in English. From the
same Calvino story we have:
A pensarci, per o, quel suo non far caso alla mobile mano di Tomagra poteva voler dire
che veramente credesse ad una vana ricerca in quella tasca: d'un biglietto ferrovario, d'un
ammifero...
\On second thought, however, her not paying attention to the wandering hand of Tomagra
could mean that she really believed it was a fruitless searching in that pocket: for a train
ticket, a match..."
Here \might mean" is an alternative. The past conditional \could have meant" is cer-
tainly grammatically possible, but in this passage Tomagra is still ddling around in his
pocket, and I think \could mean" is better. On the other hand, poteva can also mean \was
able to", as in the following from Vino e pane:
Don Paolo poteva riconoscere ogni casa, ogni camino, ogni nestra, ogni orto.
\Don Paolo was able to recognize every house, every chimney, every window, every gar-
den." Here \could have recognized" would clearly be wrong, and we see that \was able to"
is not exclusive to pot e /ha potuto. The choice of imperfetto here surely just corresponds
to the usual \continuous action" model, as opposed to the more discrete events of the pot e
examples above.
4.9.5 Volere
Here there is a di erent kind of mutation. The remoto/prossimo usually imply that the
thing wanted was in fact obtained, whereas in the imperfetto it was not or may not have
been obtained. I think of this as tting with the bounded/unbounded model: In the former
case the wanting comes to end, in the latter maybe not. An example from Il quartiere:
Gino volle restare per vedere il lm ancora una volta; e siccome anche Giorgio ci lasci o
perch e sua madre aveva bisogno di lui, eravamo rimasti i due avversari paci cati ed io.
18
\Gino wanted to stay and see the lm one more time; and since Giorgio left us becausse
his mother needed him, there remained just the two paci ed adversaries and me."
As the context makes clear even in the English version, Gino not only wanted to stay;
he did. In the Italian this is also implied by the conjugation volle rather than voleva. The
imperfetto tends to imply that the thing wanted was not obtained, e.g. from Vino e pane:
Mio fratello voleva ricomprare la stessa vigna, a causa di essa fece omicidio e n all'ergastolo.
\My brother wanted to buy the vinyard back, and because of it committed murder and
received a life sentence." He wanted to, but it never happened.
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