An Introduction to Mastering the World of Psychology (pp. 2 – 6 )
1.1 How will the SQ3R method help you master psychology?
1.2 Why do psychologists use the scientific method?
1.3 What are the goals of psychology?
Psychology Then and Now (pp. 7 – 16 )
1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to the field?
1.5 What are the major schools of thought in psychology?
1.6 What are the seven contemporary psychological perspectives?
1.7 What specialty areas exist in psychology?
Thinking about Theories and Research (pp. 16 – 18 )
1.8 How do psychologists evaluate theories?
1.9 How will critical thinking help you evaluate research?
Descriptive Research Methods (pp. 18 – 23 )
1.10 What are the pros and cons of observational and case studies?
1.11 How do researchers design useful surveys?
1.12 What are the strengths and weaknesses of the correlational method?
The Experimental Method (pp. 23 – 28 )
1.13 How do researchers use experiments to test causal hypotheses?
1.14 What are the limitations of the experimental method?
Research Participants (pp. 28 – 30 )
1.15 How can participants’ characteristics influence a study’s usefulness?
1.16 How do researchers protect human participants’ and animals’ rights?
Introduction to Psychology 1
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
The SQ3R method will help you
maximize your learning in five steps:
• Survey
• Question
• Read
• Recite
• Review
The sticky notes in Chapter 1 will
help you master this learning system
so that you can use it on your own
in the remaining chapters.
An Introduction to Mastering
the World of Psychology
A Ugandan expression says, “The hunter in pursuit of an elephant does not stop to
throw stones at birds.” In other words, to achieve any goal, including succeeding in a
psychology course, one must remain focused on it. The study strategies we have incorporated
into Mastering the World of Psychology can help you stay focused on your
goal of successfully completing your course in introductory psychology. Here is how
the features of the text can help you.
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Studying Psychology: Some Tricks of the Trade
To help you maximize your learning, Mastering the World of Psychology includes a set
of tried and true study strategies— Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review —that
are collectively known as the SQ3R method ( Robinson, 1970 ). Here’s how to make the
most of the SQ3R features that we have included in Mastering the World of Psychology :
step 1: Survey. The goal of the survey step is to get the chapter’s “big picture,” a mental
map of what it’s all about. That’s the purpose of the list of learning questions at the
beginning of each chapter. The questions give you a blueprint to use as you navigate
through the chapter and tell you what you will learn in each section. Use the learning
questions to create a note-taking outline that you will fill in as you read the chapter.
Next, look over the major elements of the chapter. These elements include the chapteropening
activity called Think About It, the section headings, Summarize It tables, Try
It activities, Explain It boxes, and Apply It boxes. You should also survey the learning
questions in the margins by each subheading (the same questions that are listed at the
beginning of the chapter) and the boldfaced terms that are also in the margins. Next,
skim over the Chapter Summary. It includes answers for all the learning questions.
Next, do the Think About It activity at the beginning of the chapter, keeping in mind
the mental overview of the chapter that you constructed with the help of the learning
questions. Now you’re ready to start working your way through the chapter.
1.1 How will the SQ3R method
help you master psychology?
SQ3R method A study method involving the
following five steps: (1) survey, (2) question,
(3) read, (4) recite, and (5) review.
2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
Here you are taking your first psychology course and wondering what it’s all
about. When you focus on the word psychology, what ideas spring to mind as you
concentrate? Do terms such as therapy, brain, psychological disorder, emotion,
and hypnosis come to mind? Your introductory psychology course will touch on
all of these concepts, but it will also help you learn how to deal with pressing
practical issues in your everyday life. How can you study more effectively? (You
can start answering this one by reading the Apply it section on page 4 .) How
can you know which career is right for you? How can you solve conflicts and
maintain satisfying relationships with others? These are the kinds of practical
questions that a good understanding of psychology can help you answer?
Let’s begin your exploration of psychology with an assessment of how
much you already know, or think you know, about the topic:
Indicate whether each statement is true (T) or false (F).
1. Once damaged, brain cells never work again.
2. All people dream during a night of normal sleep.
3. As the number of bystanders at an emergency increases, the time it takes
for the victim to get help decreases.
4. Humans do not have a maternal instinct.
5. It’s impossible for human beings to hear a watch ticking 20 feet away.
6. Eyewitness testimony is often unreliable.
7. Chimpanzees have been taught to speak.
8. Creativity and high intelligence do not necessarily go together.
9. When it comes to close personal relationships, opposites attract.
10. The majority of teenagers have good relationships with their parents.
You may be surprised to learn that all the odd-numbered items are false,
and all the even-numbered items are true. Learning all you can from this text
is a good first step toward a better understanding of behavior and mental
processes. The text’s features will help you learn because they are part of a
systematic—that is, a goal-oriented, planned, and effortful—way of studying.
Similarly, the procedures that scientists use yield reliable answers to questions
about behavior and mental processes because they are part of a systematic
approach to what some philosophers deem to be the primary goal of science:
to search for truth ( Popper, 1972 ).
THINK ABOUT IT
Step 1: Survey
• Read over the learning objectives in the
outline at the beginning of the chapter.
• Look over the other major elements of
the chapter. They include the following:
• Think About It chapter opener
• Key terms
• Summarize It tables
• Try It activities
• Explain It boxes
• Apply It boxes
• Skim the Chapter Summary.
• Create note-taking outline you’ll use as
you read the chapter. Your outline will
include these elements:
• The titles and main ideas of the
chapter’s sections
• The learning questions each
section answers
• Do the Think About It activity at the
beginning of the chapter.
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Psychologists Debunking Myths in
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An Introduction to Mastering the World of Psychology 3
step 2: Question. Do the Question step as you come to each subheading in the
chapter. This step has two parts: First, read the learning question in the margin. For
instance, the learning question for this subsection is “How will the SQ3R method
help you master psychology?” Next, think of additional questions you have about the
topic and add them to the note-taking outline you created notes in the Survey step.
step 3: Read. Read the text under each subheading, keeping in mind the learning
question and your own questions. Use the Apply It boxes, Try It activities, Explain It
boxes, and Summarize It tables, if any are present, to help you understand the section.
step 4: Recite. When you finish reading each subsection, answer its learning question
and your own questions aloud in your own words. Jot your answers, along with brief
definitions for the section’s key terms, in your outline. When you’re finished, look
back at the section to see if you’ve missed anything and modify your notes if necessary.
Repeat this process for each subsection and you’ll end up with a well-organized
set of notes on the entire chapter.
step 5a: Review I. To be sure you’ve understood each major section before you move
on to the next one, answer the Remember It questions. You should find many of the
answers in your notes. If you don’t, you should probably go back and revise them.
Next, log on to MyPsychLab and take the section’s Quick Review quiz. Research
shows that repeated testing is one of the most effective study strategies you can use
(Karpicke, Butler, & Roediger, 2009).
step 5b: Review II. After you have worked your way through the all the major sections,
you need to review the entire chapter to be sure that you’re ready to be tested
on it. Begin by reading the Chapter Summary and comparing it to your notes. Revise
your notes if necessary. Next, complete the Study Guide and check your answers
against the key in the back of the book. Revisit your notes and restudy the parts of the
chapter you scored the lowest on in the Study Guide. Finally, take the chapter Practice
Test in the back of the book or log on to MyPsychLab to take the online Chapter
Exam. Reread the parts of the chapter that relate to any questions that you miss, and
be sure that you understand where you went wrong. At this point, you should be feeling
confident about your mastery of the chapter.
Now that you know how to study this text effectively, let’s consider in more detail
what impact the work of psychologists has on our everyday lives. Before we begin,
think about all of the ways in which psychology—and the language of psychology—
plays an integral role in our lives.
Is Psychology a Science?
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. If you
are like most people, you have made many observations about both and perhaps have
developed a few of your own theories to explain them. From television, radio, or the
Internet, you probably also have had some exposure to “expert” opinions on behavior
and mental processes. In fact, those may be the very sources that led you astray on the
quiz at the beginning of the chapter.
Many people believe that a field is a science because of the nature of its body of
knowledge. Few people question whether physics, for example, is a true science. But a
science isn’t a science because of its subject matter. A field of study qualifies as a science
if it uses the scientific method to acquire knowledge. The scientific method consists
of the orderly, systematic procedures that researchers follow as they identify a research
problem, design a study to investigate the problem, collect and analyze data, draw conclusions,
and communicate their findings. The knowledge gained is dependable because
of the method used to obtain it. The scientific method includes the following steps:
Step 1: Observe and theorize
Step 2: Formulate a hypothesis
1.2 Why do psychologists use
the scientific method?
Step 2: Question
Use the question step for each
subheading
in the chapter. It has
two parts:
• Read the learning question in the
margin.
• Think of additional questions you
have about the topic.
Step 4: Recite
When you finish reading each section:
• Answer the learning question and
your own questions aloud in your
own words.
• Add the answers to your outline.
• Look back at the section to see if
you’ve missed anything.
• Modify your outline if necessary.
Repeat this process for each subsection
and you will end up with a wellorganized
set of notes on the entire
chapter.
psychology The scientific study of behavior
and mental processes.
scientific method The orderly, systematic
procedures
that researchers follow as they
identify a research problem, design a study to
investigate the problem, collect and analyze
data, draw conclusions, and communicate their
findings.
Step 3: Read
Read the text under each subheading
and be sure you understand it before
you go on to the next one. As you read:
• Keep the learning question in mind.
• Keep your own questions in mind.
• Use the Apply It boxes, Try It activities,
Explain It boxes, and Summarize
It tables, if any are present, to help
you understand the subsection.
4 Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
Step 3: Design a study
Step 4: Collect data
Step 5: Apply results to the hypothesis
We describe each of these steps in detail in the following section and Figure 1.1
on page 5 will help you visualize the process.
step 1: Observe and Theorize. The first step in the scientific method is an interactive
one in which a researcher observes some phenomenon and theorizes, or develops
a hunch, about what might have led to it. For instance, suppose a psychologist
observes students playing video games on a big-screen TV in a student lounge and
notices that the men tend to get higher scores than the women do. She might speculate
that this gender difference results from differences in the amount of time that men
and women spend playing video games. In other words, her hunch is that, in general,
men get higher scores on video games because they practice more than women do.
Such hunches are often derived from a psychological theory , a general principle or
set of principles proposed to explain how a number of separate facts are related. In
our example, the researcher’s hunch seems to be based on a theory that emphasizes
the role of experience in shaping behavior; that is, her theory proposes that the more
experience people have doing something, the better they are at it.
step 2: Formulate a Hypothesis. Based on her hunch about the cause of gender differences
in video game scores, the researcher next comes up with a hypothesis , a
specific prediction that can be tested empirically —that is, with data. Although the
researchers’ theory suggests many possible hypotheses, one, in particular, is key to
theory A general principle or set of principles
proposed to explain how a number of separate
facts are related.
hypothesis A testable prediction about the
conditions under which a particular behavior or
mental process may occur.
More Tips for Effective Studying
Decades of research on learning and memory have uncovered a number of strategies
that you can use, in addition to the SQ3R method, to make your study time
more efficient and effective.
• Establish a quiet place, free of distractions, where you do nothing else but
study. You can condition yourself to associate this environment with studying,
so that entering the room or area will be your cue to begin work.
• Schedule your study time. Research on memory has proven that spaced learning
is more effective than massed practice (cramming). Instead of studying for
five hours straight, try five study sessions of one hour each.
• To be prepared for each class meeting, set specific goals for yourself each
week and for individual study sessions. Your goals should be challenging but
not overwhelming. If the task for an individual study session is manageable,
it will be easier to sit down and face it. Completing the task you have set for
yourself will give you a sense of accomplishment.
• The more active a role you play in the learning process, the more you will
remember. Spend some of your study time reciting rather than rereading the
material. One effective method is to use index cards as flash cards. Write a
key term or study question on the front of each card. On the back, list pertinent
information from the text and class lectures. Use these cards to help you
prepare for tests.
• Overlearning means studying beyond the point at which you can just barely
recite the information you are trying to memorize. Review the information
again and again until it is firmly locked in memory. If you are subject to test
anxiety, overlearning will help.
• Forgetting takes place most rapidly within the first 24 hours after you study.
No matter how much you have studied for a test, always review shortly before
you take it. Refreshing your memory will raise your grade.
• Sleeping immediately after you study will help you retain more of what you
have learned. If you can’t study before you go to sleep, at least review what
you studied earlier in the day. This is also a good time to go through your
index cards.
• Test, retest, and test again! A great deal of research indicates that testing and
retesting yourself over material you have read enhances your ability to recall
it when you are tested. For this reason, use all of the self-testing tools we
have included in the text as well as those that are available on MyPsychLab.
Once you’ve mastered these study strategies, use them to improve your comprehension
and success in all of your courses.
APPLY IT
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the Video Episode 6: What’s in It for
Me? Making It Stick in
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An Introduction to Mastering the World of Psychology 5
understanding the contribution of practice to video game scores: If males and females
spend equal amounts of time practicing a game, their scores will be equal.
step 3: Design a Study. Next, to test the hypothesis about equal practice, the
researcher could design a study in which she uses the same procedures to teach male
and female students how to play a new video game. Then she allows them 30 minutes
to practice it on their own. At the end of the practice session, she tells participants to
play the game one more time but to try for the highest score possible.
step 4: Collect Data. Once the researcher conducts her study, she collects data that
are relevant to her hypothesis. First, she calculates an average score for male and
female participants. Then she calculates the amount of time that participants actually
spent practicing the game. This information could be critical in interpreting the
study’s results because, even though each participant is allowed 30 minutes to practice,
the researcher cannot assume that they will all practice an equal amount of time.
step 5: Apply Results to the Hypothesis. If the scores for males and females are equivalent,
the researcher can conclude that the data support her hypothesis. That is, given
the same amount of practice time, males and females will score equally well. Next, the
researcher will make other psychologists aware of her findings by presenting them at
a professional meeting, such as the annual convention of the American Psychological
Association, or by publishing them in a professional journal. Such journals publish
the results of studies that have been reviewed by other researchers and found to be
methodologically sound, a process called peer review.
However, publication is only one facet of the final step of the scientific. The
other is a process called replication in which the researcher or another psychologist
who is intrigued by her findings or wants to challenge them to repeat the study
using the same procedures. The purpose of replication is to determine whether
the original results were a one-time phenomenon or evidence of a true, underlying
psychological principle.
On the other hand, if the researcher finds that males still get higher scores than
females, she must concede that the results do not support her hypothesis and she must
modify it. However, this is where the researcher’s data on actual practice time may
come in handy: If the data show that males spent more time engaged in actual practice
Collect
data
Modify
theory
Modify
hypothesis
and retest
Replicate
Formulate a
testable
hypothesis
Design
a study
Observe
Theorize
Results fail
to support
hypothesis
Results
support
hypothesis
Figure 1.1 The Scientific Method
These are the steps involved in the scientific method.
replication The process of repeating a study to
verify research findings.
6 Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
than the females did, the researcher can assert that the study’s outcome supports her
hypothesis after all. Still, she must modify her hypothesis to include a testable assertion
about why the men in her study chose to practice more than the women did. If
she hypothesizes that the practice difference was caused by the type of game used in
the study, for example, in a subsequent study, the researcher would go on to examine
how different types of games affect practice time.
The Goals of Psychology
What goals do psychological researchers pursue when they plan and conduct their
studies? Briefly put, psychologists pursue four broad goals:
Description: Identifying and classifying behaviors and mental processes as
accurately as possible
Explanation: Proposing reasons for behaviors and mental processes
Prediction: Offering predictions (or hypotheses) about how a given condition or set
of conditions will affect behaviors and mental processes
Influence: Using the results of research to solve practical problems that involve
behavior and mental processes
Two types of research help psychologists accomplish the four goals just described:
basic research and applied research. The purpose of basic research is to seek new
knowledge and to explore and advance general scientific understanding. Basic
research explores such topics as the nature of memory, brain function, motivation,
and emotional expression. Applied research is conducted specifically for the purpose
of solving practical problems and improving the quality of life. Applied research
focuses on finding methods to improve memory or increase motivation, therapies to
treat psychological disorders, ways to decrease stress, and so on. This type of research
is primarily concerned with the fourth goal of psychology—influence—because it
specifies ways and means of changing behavior.
The scientific method has enabled psychologists to accumulate a vast knowledge
base about behavior and mental processes. However, information alone doesn’t
necessarily advance our understanding of psychological phenomena. As we noted
earlier, using knowledge acquired through the scientific method to develop cohesive
theories can help us in the quest for understanding. With that point in mind, we’ll
turn our attention to some early attempts at psychological theory building and the
schools of thought and psychological perspectives that arose from the debate stimulated
by them.
The Summarize It below summarizes the goals of psychology and applies them to
the video game hypothesis we discussed earlier.
1.3 What are the goals of
psychology?
basic research Research conducted to seek
new knowledge and to explore and advance
general scientific understanding.
applied research Research conducted
specifically to solve practical problems and
improve the quality of life.
SUMMARIZE IT
The Goals of Psychology
GOAL DEFINITION EXAMPLE
Description Describe behavior or mental process as accurately as
possible.
Calculate average video game scores for males and females.
Explanation Suggest causes for behavior or mental processes of interest. Propose that males score higher on video games because
they practice more than females do.
Prediction Specify conditions under which behavior or mental process
is likely to occur.
Hypothesize that males and females will obtain equivalent
video game scores if they practice the same amount of time.
Infl uence Apply the results of a study to change a condition in order
to bring about a desired real-world outcome or prevent an
undesired real-world outcome.
Use the results of video game practice studies to develop
games that can enhance females’ achievement in math and
science.
Step 5a: Review I
To be sure you’ve understood each major
section before you move on to the next
one:
• Look over the notes in your outline for
each of the section’s subheadings.
• Answer the Remember It questions
at the end of each section
• Log on to MyPsychLab and take the
section’s Quick Review quiz.
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Psychology Then and Now 7
Psychology Then and Now
If you were to trace the development of psychology from the beginning, you would
need to start before the earliest pages of recorded history, beyond even the early Greek
philosophers, such as Aristotle and Plato. Psychology became distinct from philosophy
when researchers began to use the scientific method to study behavior and mental
processes. By the 1920s, the field’s earliest researchers had laid the foundations of
the major schools of thought and psychological perspectives that exist in psychology
today. As the field grew and research findings accumulated, specialty areas within the
field began to follow distinctive pathways.
Exploring Psychology’s Roots
Psychology became a science and an academic discipline in the 19th century when
people who wanted to learn more about behavior and mental processes began to use
the scientific method. Conventional thought at the time held that such endeavors were
the exclusive province of white males. Nevertheless, several researchers overcame gender
and ethnic prejudice in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to make notable
contributions to the field of psychology.
Structuralism and Functionalism. Who were the
“founders” of psychology? Historians acknowledge that
three German scientists—Ernst Weber, Gustav Fechner,
and Hermann von Helmholtz—were the first to systematically
study behavior and mental processes. But it is
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) who is generally thought of
as the “father” of psychology. Wundt’s vision for the new
discipline included studies of social and cultural influences
on human thought ( Benjafield, 1996 ).
Wundt established a psychological laboratory at the
University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879, an event considered
to mark the birth of psychology as a formal academic
discipline. Using a method called introspection, Wundt
and his associates studied the perception of a variety of
visual, tactile, and auditory stimuli, including the rhythm
patterns produced by metronomes set at different speeds.
(A metronome is a mechanical or electronic device that
emits ticking sounds that represent musical rhythms such
as 2/4 and 4/4 time at varying tempos.) Introspection as
a research method involves looking inward to examine
one’s own conscious experience and then reporting
that experience.
1.4 What did the early
psychologists contribute
to the field?
REMEMBER IT
1. The orderly, systematic procedures scientists follow in acquiring a body of knowledge comprise
the ________________ __________________.
2. _______________ is the process of repeating a study to determine whether the results were
reliable.
3. The four goals of psychology are _________________, _________________,
____________________, and ___________________.
4. Applied research addresses the _____________________ goal.
▴ Even though these skydivers share the same sensations—the feeling
of falling, the rush of air on their faces as they fall, and the sudden lurch
of their parachutes opening—their reported introspections of the
experience would probably differ.
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8 Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
Wundt’s most famous student, Englishman Edward Bradford Titchener (1867–
1927), took the new field to the United States, where he set up a psychological laboratory
at Cornell University. He gave the name structuralism to this first formal school
of thought in psychology, which aimed at analyzing the basic elements, or the structure,
of conscious mental experience. Like Wundt before him, Titchener thought that
consciousness could be reduced to its basic elements, just as water (H2O) can be broken
down into its constituent elements—hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O). For Wundt,
pure sensations—such as sweetness, coldness, or redness—were the basic elements of
consciousness. And these pure sensations, he believed, combined to form perceptions.
The work of both Wundt and Titchener was criticized for its primary method,
introspection. Introspection is not objective, even though it involves observation,
measurement, and experimentation. When different introspectionists were exposed to
the same stimulus, such as the click of a metronome, they frequently reported different
experiences. Therefore, structuralism was not in favor for long. Later schools of
thought in psychology were established, partly as a reaction against structuralism,
which did not survive after the death of its most ardent spokesperson, Titchener.
Nevertheless, the structuralists were responsible for establishing psychology as a science
through their insistence that psychological processes could be measured and
studied using methods similar to those employed by scientists in other fields.
As structuralism began losing its influence in the United States in the early
20th century, a new school of psychology called functionalism was taking shape.
Functionalism was concerned not with the structure of consciousness but with how
mental processes function—that is, how humans and animals use mental processes in
adapting to their environment. The influential work of Charles Darwin (1809–1882),
especially his ideas about evolution and the continuity of species, was largely responsible
for an increasing use of animals in psychological experiments. Even though
Darwin, who was British, contributed important seeds of thought that helped give
birth to the new school of psychology, functionalism was primarily American in character
and spirit.
The famous American psychologist William James (1842–1910) was an advocate
of functionalism, even though he did much of his writing before this school
of psychology emerged. James’s best-known work is his highly regarded and frequently
quoted textbook Principles of Psychology, published more than a century
ago (1890). James taught that mental processes are fluid and have continuity, rather
than the rigid, or fixed, structure that the structuralists suggested. James spoke of
the “stream of consciousness,” which, he said, functions to help humans adapt to
their environment.
How did functionalism change psychology? Functionalism broadened the scope
of psychology to include the study of behavior as well as mental processes. It also
allowed the study of children, animals, and the mentally impaired, groups that could
not be studied by the structuralists because they could not be trained to use introspection.
Functionalism also focused on an applied, more practical use of psychology by
encouraging the study of educational practices, individual differences, and adaptation
in the workplace (industrial psychology).
The Changing Face of Psychology. As we noted earlier, during the early days of
psychology, most people believed that academic and scientific pursuits were the exclusive
province of white males. However, there were a number of women and minority
group members who refused to allow convention to stand in the way of their quest
for a better understanding of behavior and mental processes. They broke barriers that
paved the way for later scholars and, at the same time, made important contributions
to the field. Here are a few examples:
Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847–1930): completed Ph.D. requirements at Johns
Hopkins University in the mid-1880s but had to wait 40 years to receive her degree;
formulated evolutionary theory of color vision.
structuralism The first formal school
of thought in psychology, aimed at analyzing
the basic elements, or structure, of conscious
mental experience.
functionalism An early school of psychology
that was concerned with how humans and
animals
use mental processes in adapting to
their environment.
▴ During the 1880s, Christine
Ladd-
Franklin became one of the first
women to complete
a doctoral degree
in psychology,
although Johns Hopkins
University refused to officially grant her
the degree until the mid-1920s.
Source: Archives of the History of American
Psychology—The University of Akron.
Psychology Then and Now 9
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930): completed Ph.D. requirements at Harvard in
1895, but the university refused to grant doctorate to a woman (Dewsbury, 2000);
established psychology laboratory at Wellesley College; developed methods for
studying memory; first female president of the American Psychological Association
in 1905.
Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939): received a Ph.D. in psychology from
Cornell University; taught at Vassar College (Dewsbury, 2000); wrote influential
books on animal behavior and mental imagery.
Francis Cecil Sumner (1895–1954): first African American to earn a Ph.D. in
psychology;
translated more than 3,000 research articles from German, French, and
Spanish; chaired psychology department at Howard University; known as the
“father” of African American psychology.
Albert Sidney Beckham (1897–1964): established the first psychological laboratory
at an African American institution of higher education (Howard University); studied
relationship of intelligence to occupational success.
Kenneth Clark (1914–2005) and Mamie Phipps Clark (1917–1983): conducted
studies of detrimental effects of racial segregation on African American children’s
self-esteem that were cited in Supreme Court ruling that declared racial segregation
in U.S. schools unconstitutional (Benjamin & Crouse, 2002; Lal, 2002).
George Sánchez (1906–1972): studied cultural and linguistic bias in intelligence
testing during the 1930s (Sánchez, 1932, 1934).
Today, more women than men obtain degrees in psychology, and minority group
representation is growing (NCES, 2006, 2008). However, there continues to be a gap
between the proportion of minorities in the U.S. population and their representation
among professional psychologists (APA, 2008). Consequently, the APA and other
organizations have established programs to encourage minority enrollment in graduate
programs in psychology.
Schools of Thought in Psychology
Why don’t we hear about structuralism and functionalism today? In the early 20th
century, the debate between the two points of view sparked a veritable explosion of
theoretical discussion and research examining psychological processes. The foundations
of the major schools of thought in the field were established during that period
and continue to be influential today.
Behaviorism. Psychologist John B. Watson (1878–1958) looked at the study of psychology
as defined by the structuralists and functionalists and disliked virtually everything
he saw. In his article “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It” (1913), Watson
proposed a radically new approach to psychology, one that rejected the subjectivity
of both structuralism and functionalism. This new school redefined psychology as the
“science of behavior.” Termed behaviorism by Watson, this school of psychology
confines itself to the study of behavior because behavior is observable and measurable
and, therefore, objective and scientific. Behaviorism also emphasizes that behavior is
determined primarily by factors in the environment.
Behaviorism was the most influential school of thought in American psychology
until the 1960s. It remains a major force in modern psychology, in large part
because of the profound influence of B. F. Skinner (1904–1990). Skinner agreed
with Watson that concepts such as mind, consciousness, and feelings are neither
objective nor measurable and, therefore, not appropriate subject matter for psychology.
Furthermore, Skinner argued that these concepts are not needed to explain
behavior. One can explain behavior, he claimed, by analyzing the conditions that
are present before a behavior occurs and then analyzing the consequences that
follow
the behavior.
1.5 What are the major schools
of thought in psychology?
▴ Kenneth (1914–2005) and Mamie
(1917–1983) Clark’s research examining
self-esteem in African American children
was cited in the 1954 U.S. Supreme
Court decision Brown v. Board of
Education that led to the desegregation
of public schools in the United States.
behaviorism The school of psychology that
views observable, measurable behavior as the
appropriate subject matter for psychology and
emphasizes the key role of environment as a
determinant of behavior.
10 Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
Skinner’s research on operant conditioning emphasized the importance of reinforcement
in learning and in shaping and maintaining behavior. He maintained that
any behavior that is reinforced (followed by pleasant or rewarding consequences) is
more likely to be performed again. Skinner’s work has had a powerful influence on
modern psychology. You will read more about operant conditioning in Chapter 5.
Psychoanalysis. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), whose work you will study in
Chapter 11, developed a theory of human behavior based largely on case studies of
his patients. Freud’s theory, psychoanalysis, maintains that human mental life is like
an iceberg. The smallest, visible part of the iceberg represents the conscious mental
experience of the individual. But underwater, hidden from view, floats a vast store of
unconscious impulses, wishes, and desires. Freud insisted that individuals do not consciously
control their thoughts, feelings, and behavior; these are instead determined by
unconscious forces.
The overriding importance that Freud placed on sexual and aggressive impulses
caused much controversy both inside and outside the field of psychology. The most
notable of Freud’s famous students—Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Karen Horney—
broke away from their mentor and developed their own theories of personality. These
three and their followers are often collectively referred to as neo-Freudians. Thus, the
psychoanalytic approach continues to be influential, albeit in a form that has been
modified considerably over the past several decades by the neo-Freudians.
Humanistic Psychology. Humanistic psychologists reject with equal vigor
(1) the behaviorist view that behavior is determined by factors in the environment and
(2) the view of the psychoanalytic approach stating that human behavior is determined
primarily
by unconscious forces. Humanistic psychology focuses on the uniqueness
of human beings and their capacity for choice, growth, and psychological health.
Abraham Maslow and other early humanists, such as Carl Rogers (1902–1987),
pointed out that Freud based his theory primarily on data from his disturbed patients.
By contrast, the humanists emphasize a much more positive view of human nature.
They maintain that people are innately good and that they possess free will. The
humanists believe that people are capable of making conscious, rational choices, which
can lead to personal growth and psychological health. As you will learn in Chapter
9, Maslow proposed a theory of motivation that consists of a hierarchy of needs.
He considered the need for self-actualization (developing to one’s fullest potential)
to
be the highest need on the hierarchy. Rogers developed what he called client-centered
therapy, an approach in which the client, or patient, directs a discussion
focused
on his or her own view of a problem rather than on the therapist’s analysis. Rogers
and other humanists also popularized group therapy (more on humanistic therapies
in Chapter 13).
The humanistic perspective continues to be important in research examining
human motivation and in the practice of psychotherapy via a relatively new approach
known as positive psychology. Martin Seligman (2011), the best known proponent
of this approach, defines positive psychology as the scientific study of psychological
characteristics, such as optimism, that enable individuals and communities to thrive
in the face of adversity. He argues that these characteristics help to protect individuals
from traumatic experiences that behaviorists and psychoanalysts suggest almost
always doom them to emotional maladjustment. You will read more about positive
psychology in Chapter 9.
Cognitive Psychology. Cognitive psychology grew and developed partly in response
to strict behaviorism, especially in the United States (Robins, Gosling, & Craik,
1999). Cognitive psychology sees humans not as passive recipients who are pushed
and pulled by environmental forces but as active participants who seek out experiences,
who alter and shape those experiences, and who use mental processes to transform
information in the course of their own cognitive development. It studies mental
psychoanalysis (SY-ko-ah-NAL-ih-sis)
The term Freud used for both his theory of
personality
and his therapy for the treatment of
psychological disorders; the unconscious is the
primary focus of psychoanalytic theory.
humanistic psychology The school of
psychology that focuses on the uniqueness of
human beings and their capacity for choice,
growth, and psychological health.
positive psychology The scientific study
of psychological characteristics that enable
individuals
and communities to thrive in the
face of adversity.
cognitive psychology The school of
psychology
that sees humans as active
participants
in their environment; studies
mental processes such as memory, problem
solving, reasoning,
decision making, perception,
language,
and other forms of cognition.
Psychology Then and Now 11
processes such as memory, problem solving, reasoning, decision making, perception,
language, and other forms of cognition. Historically, modern cognitive psychology is
derived from two streams of thought: one that began with a small group of German
scientists studying human perception in the early 20th century and another that grew
up alongside the emerging field of computer science in the second half of the century.
Gestalt psychology made its appearance in Germany in 1912. The Gestalt psychologists,
notably Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler, emphasized
that individuals perceive objects and patterns as whole units and that the perceived
whole is more than the sum of its parts. The German word Gestalt roughly means
“whole, form, or pattern.”
To support the Gestalt theory, Wertheimer, the leader of the Gestalt psychologists,
performed his famous experiment demonstrating the phi phenomenon. In this
experiment, two lightbulbs are placed a short distance apart in a dark room. The first
light is flashed on and then turned off just as the second light is flashed on. As this
pattern of flashing the lights on and off continues, an observer sees what appears to
be a single light moving back and forth from one position to another. Here, said the
Gestaltists, is proof that people perceive wholes or patterns rather than collections of
separate sensations.
When the Nazis came to power in Germany in the 1930s, the Gestalt school disbanded,
and its most prominent members immigrated to the United States. Today,
the fundamental concept underlying Gestalt psychology—that the mind interprets
experiences in predictable ways rather than simply reacts to them—is central to
cognitive psychologists’ ideas about learning, memory, problem solving, and even
psychotherapy.
The advent of the computer provided cognitive psychologists with a new way to
conceptualize mental structures and processes, known as information-processing
theory. According to this view, the brain processes information in sequential steps, in
much the same way as a computer does serial processing—that is, one step at a time.
But as modern technology has changed computers and computer programs, cognitive
psychologists have changed their models. For example, many contemporary researchers
are examining the human memory system’s capacity for parallel processing, the
management of multiple bits of information at once, a type of information processing
that is commonly used in today’s computers (Bajic & Rickard, 2009; Sung, 2008).
Over the past 100 years or so, cognitive psychologists have carried out studies
that have greatly increased our knowledge of the human memory system and the
mental
processes involved in problem solving. Moreover, the principles discovered
in these experiments have been used to explain and study all kinds of
psychological
variables—from gender role development to individual
differences in intelligence. As a result, cognitive psychology is currently
thought by many psychologists
to be the most prominent school
of psychological thought (Robins et al., 1999). As a result, you will
encounter many references to cognitive approaches to a variety of
issues in subsequent
chapters.
Evolutionary Psychology. Why do you think all babies form attachments
to their primary caregivers? This is the kind of question that
interests evolutionary psychologists. Evolutionary psychology
focuses on how the human behaviors required for survival have
adapted in the face of environmental pressures over the long course
of evolution (Archer, 1996). As such, evolutionary psychology draws
heavily on Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection. Darwin’s
theory asserts that individual members of a given species who possess
characteristics that help them survive are the most likely to pass on
the genes underlying those characteristics to subsequent generations.
As a result, traits that support individual survival become universal in
the species; that is, every individual member of the species has them.
Gestalt psychology The school of psychology
that emphasizes that individuals perceive
objects and patterns as whole units and that the
perceived
whole is more than the sum of its parts.
▴ Is this person having a bad day? The perceptual processes
described by the Gestalt psychologists are observable
in everyday life. We often put frustrating events—such
as getting up late and then having a flat tire—together to
form a “whole” concept, such as “I’m having a bad day.”
information-processing theory An approach
to the study of mental structures and processes
that uses the computer as a model for human
thinking.
evolutionary psychology The school of
psychology that studies how human behaviors
required for survival have adapted in the face of
environmental pressures over the long course of
evolution.
12 Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
For example, every human being possesses the capacity to acquire language. Natural
selection would explain this universality as the result of the survival advantage conferred
on humans by having an efficient means of communicating information from
one person to another.
Evolutionary psychology has been called, simply, a combination of evolutionary
biology and cognitive psychology (Barker, 2006; Evans & Zarate, 2000). Two widely
recognized proponents of evolutionary psychology, Leda Cosmides and John Tooby,
hold that this perspective combines the forces of evolutionary biology, anthropology,
cognitive psychology, and neuroscience. They explain that an evolutionary perspective
can be applied to any topic within the field of psychology (Tooby & Cosmides, 2005).
For example, one of the most influential evolutionary psychologists, David Buss, and
his colleagues have conducted a number of fascinating studies examining men’s and
women’s patterns of behavior in romantic relationships (Buss, 1999, 2000a, 2000b,
2001, 2008). You’ll read more about Buss’s work and that of his critics in Chapter 9.
Biological (Physiological) Psychology. Sometimes students are confused about
the difference between evolutionary psychology and biological psychology
(also referred to as physiological psychology). After all, many think, isn’t evolution
“biological” in nature? Yes, it is, but evolutionary psychology provides explanations
of how certain biologically based behaviors came to be common in an entire species.
Consequently, it focuses on universals, traits that exist in every member of a species.
For instance, language is a human universal.
By contrast, biological psychologists look for links between specific behaviors
and particular biological factors that often help explain individual differences.
They study the structures of the brain and central nervous system, the functioning of
neurons, the delicate balance of neurotransmitters and hormones, and the effects of
heredity to look for links between these biological factors and behavior. For example,
the number of ear infections children have in the first year of life (a biological individual
difference) is correlated with learning disabilities in the elementary school years
(a behavioral
individual difference) (Golz et al., 2005).
Many biological psychologists work under the umbrella of an interdisciplinary
field known as neuroscience. Neuroscience combines the work of psychologists,
biologists, biochemists, medical researchers, and others in the study of the structure
and function of the nervous system. Important findings in psychology have resulted
from this work. For example, researchers have learned that defects in nerve cell membranes
interfere with the cells’ ability to make use of brain chemicals that help us
control body movement (Kurup & Kurup, 2002). These findings shed light on the
physiological processes underlying serious neurological disorders such as Parkinson’s
disease and help pharmacological researchers in their efforts to create more effective
medications for these disorders.
The Sociocultural Approach. How do your background and cultural experiences
affect your behavior and mental processing? The sociocultural approach emphasizes
social and cultural influences on human behavior and stresses the importance of
understanding those influences when interpreting the behavior of others. For example,
several psychologists (e.g., Tweed & Lehman, 2002) have researched philosophical
differences between Asian and Western cultures that may help explain cross-national
achievement differences. Similarly, researcher Lesley Lambright (2003) explored the
cultural characteristics that have helped the Vietnamese survive centuries of warfare.
In in-depth interviews with Vietnamese men and women ranging in age from 24 to
68, she learned that Vietnam’s multicultural background and the tolerance derived
from it, the Vietnamese people’s strong family system, and their tendencies toward
optimism, patience, and flexibility were instrumental to the resilience of this group.
Another factor that emerged from Lambright’s study was the tendency of Vietnamese
to endorse forgiveness and practicality over vengeful responses to their enemies.
A follow-up study that presented Lambright’s interview questions in survey form to
▴ According to evolutionary psychology,
natural selection has provided infants
and caregivers with a built-in genetic
predisposition
to form an emotional
attachment to one another because such
bonds help infants survive.
biological psychology The school of
psychology
that looks for links between specific
behaviors and equally specific biological
processes that often help explain individual
differences.
neuroscience An interdisciplinary field that
combines the work of psychologists, biologists,
biochemists, medical researchers, and others in
the study of the structure and function of the
nervous system.
sociocultural approach The view that social
and cultural factors may be just as powerful
as evolutionary and physiological factors in
affecting behavior and mental processing and
that these factors must be understood when
interpreting the behavior of others.
Psychology Then and Now 13
Vietnamese college students suggested that younger individuals perceive some of these
aspects of traditional culture, such as strong family ties, to be changing. Thus, a sociocultural
approach to understanding psychological variables such as resilience can shed
light both on how culture and cultural changes shape the individual’s experiences.
Social and cultural influences on behavior are often studied within the broader
context of a systems perspective. The primary idea behind the systems approach is that
multiple factors work together holistically; that is, their combined, interactive influences
on behavior are greater than the sum of the individual factors that make up the
system. A good example of the systems approach may be found in a theory proposed
by psychologist Gerald Patterson and his colleagues that explains how variables interact
to predispose some teenagers to antisocial behavior (Granic & Patterson, 2006).
This systems approach argues that poverty (a sociocultural factor), for example, is
predictive of juvenile delinquency, but in and of itself, it is insufficient to produce the
behavior. As a result, most teens from poor families do not engage in antisocial behavior.
However, poverty may function as part of a system of influential variables that
includes disengagement from school, association with peers who encourage antisocial
behavior, lack of parental supervision, and a host of other variables to increase the
risk of antisocial behavior for individual teenagers. At the same time, these variables
interact to maintain themselves and, in some cases, to create a multigenerational cycle.
For instance, disengagement from school increases the likelihood that teenagers will
live in poverty when they reach adulthood. Poverty, in turn, increases the chances that
they will have to work long hours, rendering them less able to supervise their own
children’s behavior, thus putting another generation at risk for antisocial behavior.
Contemporary Psychological Perspectives
The views of modern psychologists are frequently difficult to categorize into traditional
schools of thought. Thus, rather than discussing schools of thought, it is often
more useful to refer to psychological perspectives—general points of view used for
explaining people’s behavior and thinking, whether normal or abnormal. For example,
a psychologist may adopt a behavioral perspective without necessarily agreeing
with all of Watson’s or Skinner’s ideas. What is important is that the psychologist taking
such a view will explain behavior in terms of environmental forces.
The major perspectives in psychology today and the kinds of variables each
emphasizes in explaining behavior are as follows:
Behavioral perspective: Environmental factors
Psychoanalytic perspective: Emotions, unconscious motivations, early
childhood experiences
1.6 What are the seven
contemporary
psychological
perspectives?
▴ A sociocultural approach helps psychologists explain cross-cultural differences in
behavior.
psychological perspectives General points of
view used for explaining people’s behavior and
thinking, whether normal or abnormal.
14 Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
Humanistic perspective: Subjective experiences, intrinsic motivation to achieve
self-actualization
Cognitive perspective: Mental processes
Evolutionary perspective: Inherited traits that enhance adaptability
Biological perspective: Biological structures, processes, heredity
Sociocultural perspective: Social and cultural variables
The Summarize It lists these perspectives and illustrates how each might explain
a student’s poor performance on exams.
Psychologists need not limit themselves to just one perspective or approach. Many
take an eclectic position, choosing a combination of approaches to explain a particular
behavior. For example, a psychologist may explain a behavior in terms of both
environmental factors and mental processes. A child’s unruly behavior in school may
be seen as maintained by teacher attention (a behavioral explanation) but as initially
caused by an emotional reaction to a family event such as divorce (a psychoanalytic
explanation). By adopting multiple perspectives, psychologists are able to devise more
complex theories and research studies, resulting in improved treatment strategies.
In this way, their theories and studies can more closely mirror the behavior of real
people in real situations.
Specialties in Psychology
Stop for a minute and reflect on the definition of psychology: the study of behavior
and mental processes. Clearly, this definition covers a lot of territory. Thus, it’s not
surprising that, over the years, psychology has become a highly specialized field. For
instance, some psychologists work exclusively with issues related to mental illnesses,
such as schizophrenia, that affect a small number of people, while others address questions
that concern just about everyone, such as how stress affects health. Likewise,
1.7 What specialty areas exist in
psychology?
SUMMARIZE IT
Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology
PERSPECTIVE EMPHASIS
EXPLANATION OF A STUDENT’S POOR
PERFORMANCE ON EXAMS
Behavioral The role of environment in shaping and controlling
behavior
The student has not been reinforced for getting good grades
in the past.
Psychoanalytic The role of unconscious motivation and early childhood
experiences in determining behavior and thought
An unresolved early childhood emotional trauma is distracting
the student from his academic work.
Humanistic The importance of an individual’s subjective experience as
a key to understanding his or her behavior
Studying for exams does not fi t into this student’s defi nition
of a meaningful life.
Cognitive The role of mental processes—perception, thinking,
and memory—that underlie behavior
The student does not use effective learning strategies such
as the SQ3R method.
Evolutionary The roles of inherited tendencies that have proven adaptive
in humans
The student believes that studying is unimportant because
potential mates are more interested in his physical appearance
and capacity for social dominance than they are in his
grades.
Biological The role of biological processes and structures, as well as
heredity, in explaining behavior
An inappropriate level of emotional arousal (i.e., test anxiety)
is preventing this student from performing at an optimal
level.
Sociocultural The roles of social and cultural infl uences on behavior The student doesn’t want to be perceived as a “nerd,” so he
studies just enough to avoid failing.
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Perspectives in
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Perspectives
Psychology Then and Now 15
some psychologists focus on research, while others apply the principles of psychology
to practical problems. Regardless of specialty area, all psychologists have advanced
degrees, typically a Ph.D., in the field. Here is an overview of the major specialty areas
in the field today:
Clinical psychologists specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of mental and
behavioral disorders, such as anxiety, phobias, and schizophrenia. Some also conduct
research in these areas.
School psychologists are clinical psychologists who specialize in the diagnosis and
treatment of learning and behavioral problems that interfere with learning.
Forensic psychologists apply their training in clinical psychology to issues involving
psychology and law.
Counseling psychologists help people who have adjustment problems (marital,
social, or behavioral) that are generally less severe than those handled by
clinical psychologists.
Physiological psychologists, also called biological psychologists or neuropsychologists,
study the relationship between physiological processes and behavior.
Experimental psychologists conduct experiments in most areas of psychology—
learning, memory, sensation, perception, motivation, emotion, and others.
Developmental psychologists study how people grow, develop, and change throughout
the life span.
Educational psychologists specialize in the study of teaching and learning. ( Note: Do
not confuse educational psychology with school psychology. Recall that school
psychology is the subfield of clinical psychology that deals with the diagnosis and
treatment of learning problems. Educational psychologists study learning in typically
developing people. As such, they are trained in theory and research methods
but not in the diagnosis and treatment of learning problems.)
Social psychologists investigate how the individual feels, thinks, and behaves in a
social setting—in the presence of others.
Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychologists study the relationships between people
and their work environments.
REMEMBER IT
1. The major criticism of Wundt’s and Titchener’s research methods was that they were not
________________.
2. American psychologist _______________ was an advocate of functionalism.
3. Today, more (women than men/men than women) obtain degrees in psychology.
4. The major emphasis of ______________ is the study of the unconscious.
5. John Watson was the founder of ________________.
6. The _____________ school of thought focuses on mental processes such as memory and
problem solving.
7. One finding of interest to psychologists who represent the ____________ perspective is the
fact that attachment is a universal feature of infant-caregiver relations.
8. The ______________ perspective emphasizes the role of social and cultural variables in
explanations of individual behavior.
9. The _______________ ______________ argues that multiple perspectives are necessary to
comprehensively explain behavior and mental processes.
10. _______________ psychologists specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological
disorders.
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16 Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
At this point, you may be wondering how the psychological perspectives relate
to the various specialty areas. Think of it this way. Each perspective is a theoretical
point of view that a psychologist in any of the specialty areas can use to explain
a behavior or mental process that is relevant to her field of study. For instance, the
behavior explained in the Summarize It table on page 14, a student’s poor performance
on exams, falls within the domain of educational psychology. By contrast, a
clinical psychologist might use the various perspectives to explain the symptoms of a
psychological disorder such as depression. A counseling psychologist might use them
to explain how people cope with major life changes such as divorce. An industrial/
organizational psychologist would use them to explain individual differences in job
satisfaction. In other words, it’s possible to apply any of the perspectives within the
boundaries of any of the specialty areas. Moreover, regardless of which perspective
they adopt or their area of specialization, all psychologists approach questions about
behavior and mental processes with a set of intellectual tools that you can acquire
with a little practice.
Thinking about Theories and Research
Now that you have read about the various theoretical perspectives in psychology, you
probably want to know which of them are “true” and which are “false.” However,
psychologists don’t think about theories in this way. Instead, they evaluate theories in
terms of their usefulness.
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Likewise, you may wonder whether learning about research methods is of any
practical value to people who do not intend to become professional researchers.
As you’ll see, knowledge about research methods can prove extremely useful in everyday
life.
Evaluating Theories
As you learned earlier in this chapter, useful theories help psychologists achieve the
prediction goal by generating testable hypotheses. When assessed against this criterion,
the theories of behaviorists and cognitive psychologists appear more useful than
those of psychoanalysts and humanists. B. F. Skinner’s prediction that reinforcement
increases behavior, for example, is far more testable than Maslow’s claim that selfactualization
is the highest of all human needs.
Useful theories also lead to the development of solutions to real-world problems.
For instance, research based on the information-processing model has resulted in the
development of practical strategies for improving memory. Similarly, even though
psychoanalytic and humanistic theories have been criticized for lacking testability,
they have produced a number of beneficial psychotherapies.
Hypotheses and practical applications are important, but a theory that possesses
heuristic value is useful even if it falls short in these two areas. A theory that has heuristic
value stimulates debate among psychologists and motivates both proponents and
opponents of the theory to pursue research related to it. In other words, a theory that
possesses heuristic value makes people think and spurs their curiosity and creativity.
All of the theories discussed so far earn high marks for their heuristic value. In
fact, even if a theory has limited empirical support, professors who teach introductory
psychology are justified in including it in the course if it has been of heuristic importance
in the field. This is why we still teach about the structuralists and functionalists
and why we continue to rate Freud’s theory as one of the most important in the field.
Moreover, such theories usually affect students in the same way that they affect psychologists—
that is, learning about them stimulates students’ thinking about behavior
and mental processes. Thus, introducing these theories helps professors achieve one of
their most important instructional goals, that of motivating students to think critically.
1.8 How do psychologists
evaluate
theories?
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Thinking about Theories and Research 17
Evaluating Research
Another important goal of most professors who teach introductory psychology is to
equip students with the intellectual tools needed to evaluate claims based on psychological
research. Living in the Information Age, we are bombarded with statistics and
claims of all types every day. For instance, not long ago, the news media carried a
number of reports warning that working the night shift increases an employee’s risk of
developing heart problems. These warnings were based, reporters said, on a scientific
analysis of 34 studies that involved more than two million workers across a number
of countries. The study was published in the prestigious British Medical Journal (Vyas
et al., 2012) How can a person who is not an expert on the subject in question evaluate
claims such as these?
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The thinking strategies used by psychologists and other scientists can help us sift
through this kind of information. Critical thinking, the foundation of the scientific
method, is the process of objectively evaluating claims, propositions, and conclusions
to determine whether they follow logically from the evidence presented. When we
engage in critical thinking, we exhibit these characteristics:
Independent thinking: When thinking critically, we do not automatically accept and
believe what we read or hear.
Suspension of judgment: Critical thinking requires gathering relevant and up-
to-date
information on all sides of an issue before taking a position.
Willingness to modify or abandon prior judgments: Critical thinking involves
evaluating
new evidence, even when it contradicts preexisting beliefs.
Applying the first of these three characteristics to the shift work–heart problems
study requires recognizing that the validity of any study is not determined by the
authority of its source. Prestigious journals—or psychology textbooks for that matter—
shouldn’t be regarded as sources of fixed, immutable truths. In fact, learning to
question accepted “truths” is important to the scientific method itself.
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The second and third characteristics of critical thinking, suspension of judgment
and willingness to change, may require abandoning some old habits. If you are
like most people, you respond to media reports about research on the basis of your
own personal experiences, a type of evidence scientists call anecdotal evidence. For
instance, in response to the media report about shift work and heart problems, a person
might say, “I don’t agree with that study because my father has worked the late
shift for years, and he doesn’t have heart problems.”
Suspension of judgment requires that you postpone either accepting or rejecting
the study’s findings until you have accumulated more evidence. It might involve determining
what, if any, findings other researchers have reported regarding a possible link
between shift work and heart problems. Analysis of other relevant studies can help
to create a comprehensive picture of what the entire body of research says about the
issue. Ultimately, when enough evidence has been gathered, a critical thinker must be
willing to abandon preconceived notions and prior beliefs that conflict with it.
The quality of the evidence is just as important as the quantity. Thus, a critical
thinker would evaluate the findings of the shift work–heart problems study by considering
the methods used to obtain them. Did the researchers randomly assign employees
to experimental and control groups who worked day and night shifts and then
assess whether experimental and control employees differed in the frequency of heart
problems later? If so, then the study was an experiment, and media claims that shift
work leads to heart problems might be justified. Conversely, if the researchers simply
compared rates of heart problems in day- and night-shift employees, then claims of
a causal relationship between the two variables would not be justified. Instead, the
appropriate response would be to look for underlying variables, such as how day- and
night-shift workers differ in eating and exercise habits, that might explain the connection.
In fact, the research cited in these reports was correlational in nature, so the
strong causal claims implied by many media accounts of the study were inappropriate.
1.9 How will critical thinking help
you evaluate research?
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the Concept How to Be a Critical
Thinker
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critical thinking The process of objectively
evaluating claims, propositions, and conclusions
to determine whether they follow logically from
the evidence presented.
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the Video Episode 2: Thinking Like a
Psychologists Thinking Critically in
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18 Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
Descriptive Research Methods
The goals of psychological research are often accomplished in stages. In the early
stages of research, descriptive research methods are usually the most appropriate.
Descriptive research methods yield descriptions of behavior and include naturalistic
and laboratory observation, the case study, and the survey.
Observational and Case Studies
Have you ever sat in an airport or shopping mall and simply watched what people
were doing? Such an activity is quite similar to naturalistic observation , a descriptive
research method in which researchers observe and record behavior in its natural
setting, without attempting to influence or control it. The major advantage of naturalistic
observation is the opportunity to study behavior in normal settings, where it
occurs more naturally and spontaneously than it does under artificial and contrived
laboratory conditions. Sometimes, naturalistic observation is the only feasible way
to study behavior—for example, there is no other way to study how people typically
react during disasters such as earthquakes and fires.
Naturalistic observation has its limitations, however. Researchers must wait
for events to occur; they cannot speed up or slow down the process. And because
they have no control over the situation, researchers cannot reach conclusions about
cause–effect relationships. Another potential problem with naturalistic observation
is observer bias, which is a distortion in researchers’ observations. Observer
bias can result when researchers’ expectations about a situation cause them to see
what they expect to see or to make incorrect inferences about what they observe.
Suppose, for example, that you’re a psychologist studying aggression in preschool
classrooms. You have decided to count every time a child hits or pushes another child
as an aggressive act. Your decision to label this type of physical contact
between children as “aggressive” may cause you to notice more such
acts and label them as “aggressive” than you would if you were casually
watching a group of children play. The effects of observer bias can
be reduced substantially when two or more independent observers view
the same behavior. If you and another observer independently count, say,
23 aggressive acts in an hour of free play, the findings are considered unbiased.
If you see 30 such acts and the other observer records only 15, some
kind of bias is at work. In such situations, observers usually clarify the criteria
for classifying behavior and repeat the observations. Using video can
also help eliminate observer bias because behavior can be reviewed several
times prior to making classification decisions.
Another method of studying behavior involves observation that takes
place not in its natural setting but in a laboratory. Researchers using
laboratory observation can exert more control and use more precise
equipment to measure responses. Much of what is known about attraction,
1.10 What are the pros and
cons of observational and case
studies?
descriptive research methods Research
methods that yield descriptions of behavior.
naturalistic observation A descriptive
research method in which researchers observe
and record behavior in its natural setting,
without attempting to influence or control it.
▴ Naturalistic observation plays an important role in
studies of animal behavior.
laboratory observation A descriptive
research method in which behavior is studied
in a laboratory setting.
REMEMBER IT
1. A theory that generates debate among psychologists is said to have ______________ value.
2. Useful theories provide researchers with ______________ hypotheses.
3. Willingness to change one’s prior beliefs is a component of ______________________about
research.
4. Critical thinking about media reports of research requires some familiarity with
______________.
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Descriptive Research Methods 19
for example, has been learned through laboratory observation. However, like other
research methods, laboratory observation has limitations. For one, laboratory
behavior
may not accurately reflect real-world behavior. For example, in attraction studies,
some of the behavior people display in laboratory simulations of dating may not
occur in real-world dating situations. As a result, conclusions based on laboratory
findings may not generalize beyond the walls of the laboratory itself. Another disadvantage
is that building, staffing, equipping, and maintaining research laboratories
can be expensive.
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In a case study, a single individual or a small number of persons are studied in
great depth, usually over an extended period of time. A case study involves the use
of observations, interviews, and sometimes psychological testing. Like observational
studies, case studies are exploratory in nature. Their purpose is to provide a detailed
description of some behavior or disorder. This method is particularly appropriate
for studying people who have uncommon psychological or physiological disorders
or brain injuries. Many case studies are written about patients being treated for such
problems. In some instances, the results of detailed case studies have provided the
foundation for psychological theories. In particular, the theory of Sigmund Freud was
based primarily on case studies of his patients.
Although the case study has proven useful in advancing knowledge in several
areas of psychology, it has certain limitations. Researchers cannot establish the
cause of behavior observed in a case study, and observer bias is a potential problem.
Moreover, because so few individuals are studied, researchers do not know how applicable,
or generalizable, their findings may be to larger groups or to different cultures.
Survey Research
Have you ever been questioned about your voting behavior or about the kind of
toothpaste you prefer? If you have, chances are that you were a participant in another
kind of research study. The survey is a descriptive research method in which researchers
use interviews and/or questionnaires to gather information about the attitudes,
beliefs, experiences, or behaviors of a group of people. The results of carefully conducted
surveys have provided valuable information about drug use, sexual behavior,
and the incidence of various mental disorders.
Researchers in psychology rarely conduct studies using all members of a group.
For example, researchers interested in studying the sexual behavior of American
women do not survey every woman in the United States. (Imagine trying to interview
about 140 million people!) Instead of studying the whole population (the entire
group of interest to researchers, to which they wish to apply their findings), researchers
select a sample for study. A sample is a part of a population that is studied to
reach conclusions about the entire population.
Perhaps you have seen a carton of ice cream that contains three separate flavors—
chocolate, strawberry, and vanilla—packed side by side. To properly sample the carton,
you would need a small amount of ice cream containing all three flavors in the
same proportions as in the whole carton—a representative sample. A representative
sample mirrors the population of interest—that is, it includes important subgroups
in the same proportions as they are found in that population. A biased sample, on the
other hand, does not adequately reflect the larger population.
The best method for obtaining a representative sample is to select a random sample
from a list of all members of the population of interest. Individuals are selected in such
a way that every member of the larger population has an equal chance of being included
in the sample. Using random samples, polling organizations can accurately represent the
views of the American public with responses from as few as 1,000 people (O’Brien, 1996).
It might seem that simply interviewing people with a standard set of questions
would be the best way to gather survey data. In reality, the truthfulness of participants’
responses can be affected by characteristics of the interviewers, such as their gender,
age, race, ethnicity, religion, and social class. Thus, to use interviews effectively,
1.11 How do researchers design
useful surveys?
case study A descriptive research method in
which a single individual or a small number of
persons are studied in great depth.
survey A descriptive research method in which
researchers use interviews and/or questionnaires
to gather information about the attitudes, beliefs,
experiences, or behaviors of a group of people.
population The entire group of interest to
researchers to which they wish to generalize
their findings; the group from which a sample
is selected.
sample A part of a population that is
studied to reach conclusions about the
entire population.
representative sample A sample that mirrors
the population of interest; it includes important
subgroups in the same proportions as they are
found in that population.
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the Video Episode 1: The Real
Word: Speed Dating in
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20 Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
survey researchers must select interviewers who have personal
characteristics that are appropriate for the intended respondents.
Questionnaires can be completed more quickly and less
expensively than interviews, especially when respondents can fill
them out in their homes or online. The Internet offers psychologists
a fast and inexpensive way of soliciting participants and
collecting questionnaire data, and Internet surveys often generate
large numbers of responses (Azar, 2000). For example, an
Internet survey posted by researchers who wanted to collect data
about suicidal feelings attracted more than 38,000 respondents
from all over the world (Mathy, 2002). However, researchers
who use Web-based surveys must be cautious about generalizing
the results of their studies because respondents represent only the
population of Internet users who choose to participate, not the
general population or even the entire population of Internet users.
Moreover, they must take steps to ensure that a respondent can
participate in the study only once (Gosling et al., 2004).
If conducted properly, surveys can provide highly accurate
information. They can also track changes in attitudes or behavior
over time. For example, Johnston and others (Johnston,
O’Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2010) have tracked drug
use among high school students since 1975. However, large-scale surveys can be
costly and time consuming. Another important limitation of survey research is that
respondents may provide inaccurate information. False information can result from a
faulty memory or a desire to please the interviewer. Respondents may try to present
themselves in a good light (a phenomenon called the social desirability response), or
they may even deliberately mislead the interviewer. Finally, when respondents answer
questions about sensitive subjects, such as sexual behavior, they are often less candid
in face-to-face interviews than in self-administered or computerized questionnaires
(Tourangeau, Smith, & Rasinski, 1997).
The Correlational Method
Perhaps the most powerful descriptive method available to psychologists is the
correlational
method, a method used to establish the degree of relationship
(correlation)
between two characteristics, events, or behaviors. A group is selected for
study, and the variables of interest are measured for each participant. For example,
one researcher studied the relationship between attainment of a college degree and
subsequent income. Another might look for a correlation between the amount of time
students devote to studying and their grade point averages.
Correlations are not just important to scientists; they are also common in our
everyday thinking. For example, what is the relationship between the price of a new
car and the social status you gain from owning it? Isn’t it true that as price goes up,
status goes up as well? And isn’t status one of the variables that many people take into
account when buying a new car? As this example illustrates, correlations are part of
our everyday lives, and we often use them in decision making.
When scientists study correlations, they apply a statistical formula to
data representing
two or more variables to obtain a correlation coefficient. A
correlation
coefficient is a numerical value that indicates the strength and direction
of the relationship
between two variables. A correlation coefficient ranges
from +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation) to .00 (no relationship) to −1.00 (a
perfect negative correlation). The number in a correlation coefficient indicates the
relative strength of the relationship between two variables—the higher the number,
the stronger the relationship.
Therefore, a correlation of −.85 is stronger than a
correlation of +.64.
1.12 What are the strengths and
weaknesses of the correlational
method?
▴ Internet surveys allow psychologists to gather lots of data
from large numbers of respondents in a very short period of
time. But how representative of the general population are
people who respond to Internet surveys? How representative
are they of Internet users in general? Questions such as these
remain to be answered.
correlational method A research method
used to establish the degree of relationship
(
correlation) between two characteristics, events,
or behaviors.
correlation coefficient A numerical value
that indicates the strength and direction of the
relationship between two variables; ranges from
+1.00 (a perfect positive correlation) to −1.00
(a perfect
negative correlation).
Descriptive Research Methods 21
The sign of a correlation coefficient (+ or −) indicates whether the two variables
vary in the same or opposite directions. A positive correlation indicates that two variables
vary in the same direction, like the price of a car and its associated social status.
As another example, there is a positive though weak correlation between stress and
illness. When stress increases, illness is likely to increase; when stress decreases, illness
tends to decrease (see Figure 1.2).
A negative correlation means that an increase in the value of one variable is
associated
with a decrease in the value of the other variable. For example, as mileage
accumulates on a car’s odometer, the less reliable the car becomes. And there is a
negative correlation between the number of cigarettes people smoke and the number
of years they can expect to live. (For more information about correlation coefficients,
see the Appendix.)
Does the fact that there is a correlation between two variables indicate that one
variable causes the other? No. For instance, when two variables such as stress and
illness are correlated, we cannot conclude that stress makes people sick. It might be
that illness causes stress, or that a third factor such as poverty or poor general health
causes people to be more susceptible to both illness and stress, as shown in Figure 1.3
and illustrated in the Try It on page 22.
So, you might be thinking, if a researcher can’t draw cause–effect conclusions,
why do correlational studies? There are four reasons. First, correlations are quite useful
for making predictions. One prediction of this type with which
you may be familiar involves the use of a college applicant’s high
school class rank as a factor in admissions decisions. In general, the
positive correlation between high school class rank and success in
college means that the higher an applicant’s rank in high school, the
more likely he or she is to succeed in college. Likewise, as you will
learn from the Explain It on page 22, several correlations determine
whether a particular individual gets a credit card or loan.
Correlational studies are also useful when it is impossible, for ethical
reasons, to study variables of interest using more direct methods.
Scientists can’t ethically ask pregnant women to drink alcohol just
so they can find out whether it causes birth defects. The only option
available in such cases is the correlational method. Researchers have
to ask mothers about their drinking habits and note any association
with birth defects in their babies. Knowing the correlation between
prenatal alcohol consumption and the incidence of birth defects helps
scientists make predictions about what may happen when pregnant
women consume alcohol.
Another reason for using the correlational method is that many
variables of interest to psychologists cannot be manipulated. Everyone
wants to know whether biological sex (whether one is male or female)
causes the differences we observe in men’s and women’s behavior.
(a) Positive Correlation, +.50
High
Low
Low Grades Grades
TV Time
Study Time
High
(b) Negative Correlation, –.94
High
Low
Low High
Figure 1.2 Positive and Negative Correlations
Here are two graphs showing positive and negative
correlations. (a) When positively correlated scores on
two variables are graphed, the points fall along a line
that rises from left to right. This graph might represent
two variables such as amount of time spent studying
and grades on an exam. As study time goes up, exam
grades go up as well. (b) When negatively correlated
scores on two variables are graphed, the points follow
a line that declines from left to right. This graph might
represent two variables such as amount of time spent
watching television and grades on an exam. As TV time
goes up, grades go down.
Stress
Stress
Stress Poverty
Two variables—stress and illness—are correlated.
Illness
Illness
Illness
Illness
Stress
could lead to
could lead to
The two variables could
have mutual effects.
A third factor could underlie
both stress and illness.
Figure 1.3 Correlation Does Not Prove Causation
A correlation between two variables does not prove that a
cause–effect relationship exists between them. There is a
correlation between stress and illness, but that does not
mean that stress necessarily causes illness. Both stress and
illness may result from another factor, such as poverty or
poor general health.
▴ Temperature is correlated with snowcone
sales. As temperature increases, so
does the number of snow cones sold. Is
this a positive or a negative correlation?
What about the corresponding correlation
between temperature and coffee sales?
Is it positive or negative?
22 Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
TRY IT What Is the Third Variable Problem ?
The third variable problem occurs when one variable is associated with another
because both are linked to a third, unmeasured variable. See if you can
determine the unmeasured variable that underlies these correlations.
1. The more churches a town has, the more bars it has.
2. The more mileage a car has accumulated, the less reliable it is.
3. The larger a child’s shoe size, the higher his raw score on an intelligence
test (i.e., the number of questions he answers correctly).
Answers:
1. The third variable is population. The larger the town, the more
establishments of all kinds there are in it.
2. Many answers are possible, but the best one is that a car’s parts wear out
as it accumulates mileage. So, the third variable is wear and tear on the
car’s parts.
3. The third variable is age. The older children are, the more questions they
answer correctly on intelligence tests.
Have you seen television commercials or pop-up ads that ask, “What’s your
credit score?” If so, you probably inferred from the ad itself that credit scores
are connected in some way to your financial well-being. That’s true, but do you
really know what a credit score is? You can use what you’ve just learned about
correlations to get a better understanding of what credit scores are and how
they are determined.
A credit score is a numerical summary of an individual’s financial history
that predicts the likelihood that he or she will have a delinquency in the future.
A delinquency is failure to pay back a loan, declaration of bankruptcy, or any
instance in which a person makes a payment on a loan or credit card more
than 90 days after the original due date. The higher a person’s credit score, the
lower the likelihood of a future delinquency ( Equifax, 2006 ). Thus, the connection
between credit scores and delinquencies is a correlation, one that allows
financial institutions to make predictions about the likelihood that an applicant
will fulfill her financial obligations. Can you determine the nature (positive or
negative) of the correlation between credit scores and delinquency risk? The
graph in Figure 1.4 may help you visualize it.
If you compare this graph to the scatterplots in Figure 1.2 on page 21 , you
will see that the correlation between credit scores and delinquencies is negative.
In other words, the higher your score, the lower your chances of a delinquency.
Consequently, using credit scores helps lenders minimize the chances that consumers
will fail to pay them back.
The credit score itself is based on several correlations. Some of these correlations
are positive, and some are negative. See if you can determine which of
the three credit score factors below is based on positive correlations and which
is derived from negative correlations (see answers following):
• The longer your credit history, the higher your score.
• The more credit cards you have, the lower your score.
• The more reports of late payments there are on your credit report, the lower
your score.
If you guessed that a positive correlation is the basis of the first item on
the list, and the others are based on negative correlations, you are correct.
Thanks to the association between length of credit history and credit scores,
the scores of young adults tend to go up somewhat automatically during the first
few years after they get their first loan or credit card. Of course, young consumers
don’t benefit from this factor unless they also make payments on time, refrain
from running up large credit card balances, and resist the temptation to borrow
money excessively as they work to build their credit histories. Once young consumers
grasp the nature of the correlations that are embodied in credit scores,
they can manipulate those correlations in their favor to increase the scores.
EXPLAIN IT What Is a Credit Score?
Likelihood of a Delinquency
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
500–549 550–599 600–649 650–699 700–749 750–799 800–850
Credit Scores
Figure 1.4 Predicting Credit Delinquencies
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PsychTutor
Click here in your eText for an interactive
tutorial on Correlation Versus Causation
The Experimental Method 23
But we can’t assign individuals to become male or female as we might ask them to
take a drug or a placebo. Again, the only option is to study the correlations between
biological sex and particular variables of interest, such as cognitive functioning
and personality.
Finally, correlational studies can often be done fairly quickly. By contrast, as you will
learn in the section that follows, experiments can be time consuming and complex.
The Experimental Method
What comes to mind when you hear the word experiment? Many people use the word
to refer to any kind of study. Among psychologists, though, the term experiment refers
only to one kind of study, the kind in which researchers seek to determine the causes
of behavior.
Experiments and Hypothesis Testing
The experimental method , or the experiment, is the only research method that
can be used to identify cause–effect relationships. An experiment is designed to test
a causal hypothesis , a prediction about a cause–effect relationship between two or
more variables. A variable is any condition or factor that can be manipulated, controlled,
or measured. One variable of interest to you is the grade you will receive in this
psychology course. Another variable that probably interests you is the amount of time
you will spend studying for this course. Do you suppose that a cause–effect relationship
exists between the amount of time students spend studying and the grades they
receive? Consider two other variables, alcohol consumption and aggression. Alcohol
consumption and aggressive behavior are often observed occurring at the same time.
But can we assume that alcohol consumption causes aggressive behavior?
An Example of an Experimental Study. Alan Lang and his colleagues (1975) conducted
a classic experiment to determine whether alcohol consumption itself increases
aggression or whether the beliefs or expectations about the effects of alcohol cause
the aggressive behavior. The participants in the experiment were 96 male college students.
Half of the students were given plain tonic to drink; the other half were given a
vodka-and-tonic drink in amounts sufficient to raise their blood alcohol level to .10,
which is higher than the .08 level that is the legal limit for intoxication in most states.
Participants were assigned to four groups:
Group 1: Expected alcohol, received only tonic
Group 2: Expected alcohol, received alcohol mixed with tonic
Group 3: Expected tonic, received alcohol mixed with tonic
Group 4: Expected tonic, received only tonic
1.13 How do researchers
use experiments to test causal
hypotheses?
experimental method The only research
method that can be used to identify cause–effect
relationships between two or more conditions
or variables.
causal hypothesis A prediction about a
cause–effect relationship between two or
more variables.
variable Any condition or factor that can be
manipulated, controlled, or measured.
REMEMBER IT
1. One problem with the _______ is that it often does not generalize to individuals other than
the subject of the study.
2. In order to be useful, a survey must be based on a _______ sample.
3. A(n) _______ is a number describing the strength and direction of a relationship between
two variables.
4. In positive correlations, two variables move in _______.
5. In negative correlations, two variables move in _______.
6. The closer a correlation coefficient is to +1.0 or −1.0, the _______ the relationship between
two variables.
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24 Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
After the students had consumed the designated amount, the researchers had an
accomplice, who posed as a participant, purposely provoke half the students by belittling
their performance on a difficult task. All the students then participated in a learning
experiment, in which the same accomplice posed as the learner. The subjects were
told to administer an electric shock to the accomplice each time he made a mistake on
a decoding task. Each participant was allowed to determine the intensity and duration
of the “shock.” (Although the students thought they were shocking the accomplice, no
shocks were actually delivered.) The researchers measured the aggressiveness of the
students in terms of the duration and the intensity of the shocks they chose to deliver.
What were the results of the experiment? As you might imagine, the students
who had been provoked gave the accomplice stronger shocks than those who had
not been provoked. But the students who drank the alcohol were not necessarily the
most aggressive. Regardless of the actual content of their drinks, the participants who
thought they were drinking alcohol gave significantly stronger shocks, whether provoked
or not, than those who assumed they were drinking only tonic (see Figure 1.5).
The researchers concluded that it was the expectation of drinking alcohol, not the
alcohol itself, that caused the students to be more aggressive.
Independent and Dependent Variables. Recall that experiments test hypotheses
about cause and effect. Examples of such hypotheses include “Studying causes good
grades” and “Taking aspirin causes headaches to go away.” Note that each hypothesis
involves two variables: One is thought to be the cause (studying, taking aspirin),
and the other is thought to be affected by the cause. These two kinds of variables are
found in all experiments. An experiment has at least one independent variable—
a variable that the researcher believes causes a change in some other variable. The
researcher deliberately manipulates the independent variable (hypothesized cause) to
determine whether it causes any change in another behavior or condition. Sometimes
the independent variable is referred to as the treatment. The Lang experiment had
two independent variables, the alcoholic content of the drink and the expectation of
drinking
alcohol.
independent variable In an experiment,
a factor or condition that is deliberately
manipulated
to determine whether it causes
any change in another behavior or condition.
Mean of Shock Intensity Chosen
by Unprovoked Participants
Expected
alcohol,
received
tonic
Expected
alcohol,
received
alcohol mixed
with tonic
Expected
tonic,
received
alcohol mixed
with tonic
Expected
tonic,
received
tonic
Expected
alcohol,
received
alcohol mixed
with tonic
Expected
alcohol,
received
tonic
Expected
tonic,
received
alcohol mixed
with tonic
Expected
tonic,
received
tonic
Mean of Shock Intensity Chosen
by Provoked Participants
4.80
4.59
2.90
2.70
5.00 5.06
3.80
3.59
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Why would expecting to drink alcohol affect a person’s behavior almost as much as actually drinking it?
Figure 1.5 The Mean Shock Intensity Chosen by Provoked and Unprovoked Participants
In the Lang experiment, participants who thought they were drinking alcohol chose to give significantly
stronger
shocks, whether provoked or not, than those who believed they were drinking only tonic.
Source: Data from Lang et al. (1995)
The Experimental Method 25
The second type of variable found in all experiments, the one that the hypothesis
states is affected by the independent variable, is the dependent variable. It is
measured
at the end of the experiment and is presumed to vary (increase or decrease)
as a result of the manipulations of the independent variable(s). Researchers must
provide
operational definitions of all variables in an experiment—that is, they must
specify precisely how the variables will be observed and measured. In the Lang study,
the dependent variable—aggression—was operationally defined as the intensity and
duration of the “shocks” the participants chose to deliver to the accomplice.
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Experimental and Control Groups. Most experiments are conducted using two
or more groups of participants. There must always be at least one experimental
group—a group of participants who are exposed to the independent variable, or the
treatment. The Lang experiment, as noted earlier, used three experimental groups:
Group 1: Expected alcohol, received only tonic
Group 2: Expected alcohol, received alcohol mixed with tonic
Group 3: Expected tonic, received alcohol mixed with tonic
Most experiments also have a control group—a group that is similar to the
experimental group and is also measured on the dependent variable at the end of the
experiment, for purposes of comparison. The control group is exposed to the same
experimental environment as the experimental group but is not given the treatment.
The fourth group in the Lang study was exposed to neither of the two independent
variables; that is, this group did not expect alcohol and did not receive alcohol.
Because this group was similar to the experimental groups and was exposed to the
same experimental environment, it served as a control group.
You may be wondering why a control group is necessary. Couldn’t an experimenter
just expose one group to the independent variable and see if a change
occurs? While this approach is sometimes used, it is usually preferable to have a
control group because people and their behaviors often change without intervention.
Having a control group reveals what kinds of changes happen “naturally”
and provides a way of separating the effect of the independent variable from such
changes. Suppose you want to find out if a certain medication relieves headaches.
You could just find some people with headaches, give them the medication, and
then count how many still have headaches an hour later. But some headaches go
away without treatment. So if the medication appears to work, it may be only
because a number of headaches went away on their own. Having a control group
allows you to know whether the medicine relieves headaches in addition to those
that disappear without treatment.
Limitations of the Experimental Method
You now know that experiments provide information about cause–effect relationships.
But what are their limitations?
Confounding Variables. One of the advantages of the experimental method is that
it enables researchers to exercise strict control over the setting. However, the more
control they exercise, the more unnatural and contrived the research setting becomes.
And the more unnatural the setting becomes, the less applicable findings may be to
the real world. However, the most important limitation of the experimental method is
that, even when a researcher follows the method’s steps scrupulously, confounding
variables,
factors other than the independent variable(s) that are unequal across
groups, can prevent her from concluding that the independent variable caused a
change in the dependent variable. Three sources of bias are frequently responsible for
the presence of confounding variables in an experiment: selection, the placebo effect,
and experimenter bias.
1.14 What are the limitations
of the experimental method?
dependent variable The factor or condition
that is measured at the end of an experiment
and is presumed to vary as a result of the
manipulations of the independent variable(s).
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Distinguishing Independent and
Dependent Variables
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experimental group In an experiment,
the group that is exposed to an independent
variable.
control group In an experiment, a group
similar
to the experimental group that is
exposed to the same experimental environment
but is not given the treatment; used for purposes
of comparison.
confounding variables Factors other than the
independent variable(s) that are unequal across
groups.
26 Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
Selection Bias. When participants are assigned to experimental or control groups in
such a way that systematic differences among the groups are present at the beginning of
the experiment, selection bias occurs. If selection bias occurs, then differences at the
end of the experiment may not reflect the change in the independent variable but may
be due to preexisting differences in the groups. To control for selection bias, researchers
must use random assignment . This process consists of selecting participants by using
a chance procedure (such as drawing the names of participants out of a hat) to guarantee
that each participant has an equal probability of being assigned to any of the groups
as the Try It on page 26 illustrates. Random assignment maximizes the likelihood that
the groups will be as similar as possible at the beginning of the experiment. If there
were preexisting differences in students’ levels of aggressiveness in the Lang experiment,
random assignment would have spread those differences across all the groups.
Participant and Experimenter Bias. Can participants’ expectations influence an experiment’s
results? Yes. The placebo effect occurs when a participant’s response to a treatment
is due to his or her expectations about the treatment rather than to the treatment
itself. Suppose a drug is prescribed for a patient and the patient reports improvement. The
improvement could be a direct result of the drug, or it could be a result of the patient’s
expectation that the drug will work. Studies have shown that sometimes patients’ remarkable
improvement can be attributed solely to the power of suggestion—the placebo effect.
In drug experiments, the control group is usually given a placebo —an inert or
harmless substance such as a sugar pill or an injection of saline solution. To control
for the placebo effect, researchers do not let participants know whether they are in
the experimental group (receiving the treatment) or in the control group (receiving
the placebo). If participants getting the real drug or treatment show a significantly
greater improvement than those receiving the placebo, then the improvement can be
attributed to the drug rather than to the participants’ expectations about the drug’s
effects. In the Lang experiment, some students who expected alcohol mixed with tonic
were given only tonic. The tonic without alcohol functioned as a placebo, allowing
researchers to measure the effect of the expectations alone in producing aggression.
Experimenter bias occurs when researchers’ preconceived notions or expectations
become a self-fulfilling prophecy and cause the researchers to find what they
expect to find. A researcher’s expectations can be communicated to participants,
perhaps unintentionally, through tone of voice, gestures, or facial expressions. These
communications can influence the participants’ behavior. Expectations can also influence
a researcher’s interpretation of the experimental results, even if no influence
occurred during the experiment. To control for experimenter bias, researchers must
not know which participants are assigned to the experimental and control groups
until after the research data are collected and recorded. (Obviously, someone assisting
selection bias The assignment of participants
to experimental or control groups in such a way
that systematic differences among the groups are
present at the beginning of the experiment.
random assignment The process of
selecting participants for experimental and
control groups by using a chance procedure to
guarantee that each participant has an equal
probability of being assigned to any of the
groups; a control for selection bias.
placebo effect The phenomenon that occurs
in an experiment when a participant’s response
to a treatment is due to his or her expectations
about the treatment rather than to the treatment
itself.
placebo (pluh-SEE-bo) An inert or harmless
substance given to the control group in an
experiment as a control for the placebo effect.
experimenter bias A phenomenon that occurs
when a researcher’s preconceived notions or
expectations in some way influence participants’
behavior and/or the researcher’s interpretation
of experimental results.
TRY IT Does Random Assignment Really Make Groups Equal?
You will need a set of 100 poker chips with 50 white chips, 25 red chips, and
25 blue chips for this activity. Put all of the chips in an opaque bag or container.
Draw one chip out of the container and flip a coin. If heads comes up, assign
the chip to the “experimental group.” If it’s tails, assign the chip to the “control
group.” Repeat the procedure for all 100 chips. When you are finished, determine
the proportion of white, red, and blue chips in each group. The proportions
should be very close to 50% white, 25% red, and 25% blue. Repeat the activity
imagining that each chip color represents a human characteristic, such as
ethnicity, that a researcher might be interested in. As you will see, by randomly
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions, a researcher can
construct groups that are equally representative of the population from which
they are drawn.
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the Video Scientifi c Research Methods in
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The Experimental Method 27
the researcher does know.) When neither the participants nor the researchers know
which participants are getting the treatment and which are in the control group, the
experiment is using the double-blind technique .
Quasi-Experiments. Some treatments cannot ethically be given to human participants
because their physical or psychological health would be endangered. For
instance, as we noted earlier, it would be unethical to intentionally expose fetuses to
alcohol for the purpose of experimentation. For this reason, researchers must conduct
quasi-experiments , comparisons of groups that have differing degrees of exposure
to a variable of interest, to study variables such as the effects of prenatal drug exposure.
Quasi-experiments do not provide evidence of causal relationships, but they are
the only option available for studying variables such as prenatal alcohol exposure.
Quasi-experiments are also useful when it is impractical or impossible to manipulate
an independent variable of interest. For instance, when educational researchers
compare test scores of children attending different schools, they are conducting quasiexperiments.
Likewise, comparisons of groups that differ in gender, age, income, educational
attainment, and a host of other variables are quasi-experiments.
Cross-cultural research , comparisons of mental processes and behaviors in
different cultures, is also quasi-experimental. As we noted in the discussion of the
sociocultural perspective earlier in the chapter, research examining the influence of
culture on behavior and mental processes has become increasingly important in recent
years. Cross-cultural research is important in evolutionary psychology as well due to
its focus on universal phenomena such as infant attachment.
The Summarize It summarizes the different types of research we have discussed in
this chapter.
double-blind technique A procedure
in which neither the participants nor the
experimenters know who is in the experimental
and control groups until after the data have
been gathered; a control for experimenter bias.
quasi-experiments Comparisons of groups
that differ in exposure to a variable of interest
that cannot be manipulated for ethical or
practical reasons.
cross-cultural research Comparisons of
mental processes and behaviors among humans
living in different cultures.
Research Methods in Psychology
METHOD DESCRIPTION ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
Naturalistic
and laboratory
observation
Observation and recording of behavior
in its natural setting or in a laboratory.
Behavior studied in everyday setting is
more natural. A laboratory setting allows
for precise measurement of variables.
Can provide basis for hypotheses to be
tested later.
Researcher’s expectations can distort
observations (observer bias). In a natural
setting the researcher has little or no
control over conditions. Laboratory
observations may not generalize to
real-world settings, and they can be
expensive.
Case study In-depth study of one or a few individuals
using observation, interview, and/or
psychological testing.
Source of information for rare or unusual
conditions or events. Can provide basis for
hypotheses to be tested later.
May not be generalizable. Does not
establish cause of behavior. Subject to
misinterpretation by the researcher.
Survey Interviews and/or questionnaires used
to gather information about attitudes,
beliefs, experiences, or behaviors of a
group of people.
Can provide accurate information
about large numbers of people. Can
track changes in attitudes and behavior
over time.
Responses may be inaccurate.
Sample may not be representative.
Characteristics of the interviewer may
infl uence responses. Can be costly and
time consuming.
Correlational
method
Method used to determine the relationship
(correlation) between two events,
characteristics, or behaviors.
Can assess strength of the relationship
between variables and can often be done
quickly. Provides basis for prediction.
Does not demonstrate cause and effect.
Experimental
method
Random assignment of participants to
groups. Manipulation of the independent
variable(s) and measurement of
the effect on the dependent variable.
Enables identifi cation of cause–effect
relationships.
Laboratory setting may inhibit natural
behavior of participants. Findings may
not be generalizable to the real world.
In some cases, experiment is unethical
or impossible.
SUMMARIZE IT
SUMMARY
28 Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
Research Participants
You have learned about observer and experimenter bias in research, but were you
aware that the findings of a study can be biased by the participants themselves?
Furthermore, researchers are bound by ethical guidelines that specify how human
participants and animal subjects are to be treated.
Participant-Related Bias in Psychological Research
Do you remember reading earlier about the importance of representative samples in
survey research? With other methods, representativeness becomes an issue when
psychologists want to generalize the findings of studies to individuals other than the
studies’ participants. During the 1990s, several psychologists offered critiques of the lack
of representativeness of participants in psychological research. These critiques raised
awareness of the failure of psychologists to consider the effects of their sample selection
procedures on the results of their studies. As a result, the American Psychological
Association and other professional organizations began to require that researchers make
every effort to ensure that participants are representative of the population to which
the study’s results will be generalized. These organizations also require that researchers
include detailed information about participants’ characteristics (i.e., age, ethnicity) in all
published research. A few areas of concern are race, gender, and age.
Researcher Sandra Graham (1992) put forward two important criticisms regarding
study participants. She pointed out that whites are often overrepresented in psychological
studies because the majority of studies with human participants have drawn
from the college student population ( Graham, 1992 ), which has a lower proportion
of minorities than the population in general. Moreover, college students, including
those of minority ethnicity, are a relatively select group in terms of age, socioeconomic
class, and educational level. Thus, they are not representative of the general
population. This lack of representativeness in a research sample is called participantrelated
bias . Graham (1992) also reported finding a methodological flaw—failure
to include socioeconomic status—in much of the research literature comparing white
Americans and African Americans. Graham pointed out that African Americans are
overrepresented among the economically disadvantaged. She maintained that socioeconomic
status should be incorporated into research designs “to disentangle race and
social class effects” in studies that compare white and African Americans ( 634 ).
Gender bias is another type of participant-related bias. For example, Ader and
Johnson (1994) found that, when conducting research in which all of the participants
are of one sex, researchers typically specify the gender of the sample clearly when it
is female but not when the sample is exclusively male. Such a practice, according to
Ader and Johnson, reveals a “tendency to consider male participants ‘normative,’ and
1.15 How can participants’
characteristics influence a
study’s usefulness?
participant-related bias A type of bias
in which a study’s participants are not
representative of the population to which
results will be generalized.
REMEMBER IT
1. The _______ is the only research method that can be used to identify cause–effect
relationships between variables.
2. In an experiment, the _______ is manipulated by the researcher, and its effects on the
_______ are measured at the end of the study.
3. The _______ group sometimes receives a placebo.
4. Random assignment is used to control for _______ bias.
5. ______ bias is controlled for when researchers do not know which participants are in the
experimental and control groups.
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Research Participants 29
results obtained from them generally applicable, whereas female participants are somehow
‘different,’ and results obtained from them are specific to female participants” (pp.
217–218). On a positive note, however, these researchers report that over the decades,
gender bias in the sampling and selection of research subjects has been decreasing.
Ageism is another continuing source of participant-related bias and is especially
apparent in the language used in psychological research (Schaie, 1993). For example,
the titles of research studies on aging often include words such as loss, deterioration,
decline, and dependency. Moreover, researchers are likely to understate the great
diversity among the older adults they study. According to Schaie, “most research on
adulthood shows that differences between those in their 60s and those in their 80s
are far greater than those between 20- and 60-year-olds” (p. 50). Researchers should
guard against using descriptions or reaching conclusions
that imply that all members
of a given age group are defined by negative
characteristics.
Protecting Human Participants’ and Animals’ Rights
In 2002, the American Psychological Association (APA) adopted its most recent set of
ethical standards governing research with human participants so as to safeguard their
rights while supporting the goals of scientific inquiry. Following are some of the main
provisions of the code:
Legality: All research must conform to applicable federal, state, and local laws and
regulations. In 2010, the APA amended the code of ethics to clarify this provision.
These amendments require psychologists to act in accord with basic human
rights even if the laws under which they are practicing or the policies and regulations
of the organizations for which they work violate such rights (APA Ethics
Committee, 2010).
Institutional approval: Researchers must obtain approval from all institutions
involved in a study. For example, a researcher cannot conduct a study in a school
without the school’s approval.
Informed consent: Participants must be informed of the purpose of the study and
its potential for harming them.
Deception: Deception of participants is ethical when it is necessary. However, the
code of ethics cautions researchers against using deception if another means can be
found to test the study’s hypothesis.
Debriefing: Whenever a researcher deceives participants, including through the use
of placebo treatments, he or she must tell participants about the deception as soon
as the study is complete.
Clients, patients, students, and subordinates: When participants are under another’s
authority (for example, a therapist’s client, a patient in a hospital, a student in a
psychology class, or an employee), researchers must take steps to ensure that participation
in a study, and the information obtained during participation, will not
damage the participants in any way. Professors, for example, cannot reduce students’
grades if the students refuse to participate in a research study.
Payment for participation: Participants can be paid, but the code of ethics requires
that they be fully informed about what is expected in return for payment.
Publication: Psychological researchers must report their findings in an appropriate
forum, such as a scientific journal, and they must make their data available to others
who want to verify their findings.
The APA code of ethics also includes guidelines for using animals in psychological
research. Here are a few of the important guidelines:
Legality: Like research with human participants, animal research must follow all
relevant federal, state, and local laws.
1.16 How do researchers
protect human participants’ and
animals’ rights?
30 Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
Looking Back
Supervision by experienced personnel: The use of animals must be supervised by
people who are trained in their care. These experienced personnel must teach all
subordinates, such as research assistants, how to properly handle and feed the animals
and to recognize signs of illness or distress.
Minimization of discomfort: Researchers are ethically bound to minimize any discomfort
to research animals. For example, it is unethical to perform surgery on
research animals without appropriate anesthesia. And when researchers must terminate
the lives of research animals, they must do so in a humane manner.
Even with these safeguards in place, the use of animals in research is controversial.
Many animal rights advocates want all animal research stopped immediately. Thus,
it is important to address the question of whether animal research is really necessary.
The fact that virtually all of the marvels of modern medicine are at least partially
the result of experimentation using animals supports the view that animal research is
indeed necessary ( Aaltola, 2005 ). Such research has also increased knowledge in the
areas of learning, motivation, stress, memory, and the effects on the unborn of various
drugs ingested during pregnancy. Similarly, animal research has helped psychopharmacologists
better understand the side effects of drugs that are used to relieve the
symptoms of serial mental illnesses such as schizophrenia ( Thaaker & Himabindhu,
2009 ). Thus, animal research is critically important to experiments that involve variables
that cannot be ethically manipulated in human beings.
However, the material benefits derived from an action cannot stand alone as
an ethical justification for it ( Brody, 2012 ). For this reason, decisions about the use
of animals in research must balance the potential benefits of a given study against
the pain and suffering that might be inflicted upon its animal subjects. For example,
studying potential cures for cancer might justify intentionally making an animal
fatally ill. By contrast, a study that goes to this extreme in search of a cure for male
pattern baldness might not. Emphasis on achieving this kind of ethical balance in animal
research has led to a search for alternative research methods that are reportedly
resulting in a decrease in the numbers of animals needed ( Garrett, 2012 ).
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In this chapter, you have learned a great deal about psychologists,
the methods they use, and a tried-and-true approach to
studying textbook chapters, the SQ3R method. To be most
effective, a general study method such as SQ3R must be
adapted to each individual’s learning preferences and study
skill level. To implement this goal, think about how personally
helpful each of the SQ3R features was as you worked your way
through Chapter 1 . Use the following table to rate each feature
according to this scale: 2 = very useful, 1 = somewhat useful,
and 0 = not useful. As you read each chapter , make a conscious
effort to follow the SQ3R steps, devoting the most emphasis
to those features to which you gave a rating of 1 or 2. Such an
approach will enable you to use your study time efficiently and
effectively and, we hope, avoid those pre-exam “all-nighters.”
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the Video Episode 2: Research
Ethics in
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REMEMBER IT
1. ________, _________, and _________ have been overrepresented in many kinds of
psychological studies.
2. Psychologists are required to debrief participants thoroughly after a study involving
_________.
3. By using _________ in research, researchers have learned a great deal about topics such
as the effects of drugs ingested during pregnancy.
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Chapter 1 Summary 31
CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY
AN INTRODUCTION TO MASTERING THE WORLD OF PSYCHOLOGY (pp. 2 – 7 )
1.1 How will the SQ3R method help you master
psychology? (pp. 2 – 3 )
The SQ3R method—survey, question, read, recite, and
review—provides you with a systematic approach to studying
the material. Using this approach to studying will help you
manage your time more efficiently and give you a sense of
control over your learning and academic performance.
Key Term
SQ3R method , p. 2
1.2 Why do psychologists use the scientific
method? (pp. 3 – 6 )
The scientific method consists of the orderly, systematic procedures
researchers follow as they identify a research problem,
design a study to investigate the problem, collect and
analyze data, draw conclusions, and communicate their
findings. Psychologists use it because it is the most objective
method known for obtaining dependable knowledge.
Key Terms
psychology , p. 3
scientific method , p. 3
theory , p. 4
hypothesis , p. 4
replication , p. 5
1.3 What are the goals of psychology? (pp. 6 – 7 )
The four goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict,
and influence behavior and mental processes. The purpose of
basic research is to seek new knowledge and to expand general
scientific understanding. Applied research explores the
application of psychological principles to practical problems
and everyday life.
Key Terms
basic research , p. 6
applied research , p. 6
PSYCHOLOGY THEN AND NOW (pp. 7 – 16 )
1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to
the field? (pp. 7 – 9 )
Wundt launched the study of psychology as a formal academic
discipline. One of his students, Titchener, founded the
school of thought called structuralism. Functionalism was
the first American school of psychology and broadened the
scope of the field to include examination of behavior as well
as conscious mental processes. Early female and minority
psychologists had to overcome significant educational and
professional barriers to work in the field. Still, many of these
individuals made noteworthy contributions. Today minority
group representation is growing, and more women than men
obtain degrees in psychology.
Key Terms
structuralism , p. 8
functionalism , p. 8
LEARNING TOOLS USEFULNESS
Think About It 0 1 2
Learning questions 0 1 2
Key terms 0 1 2
Explain It 0 1 2
Apply It 0 1 2
Try It 0 1 2
Summarize It 0 1 2
Chapter Summary 0 1 2
Study Guide 0 1 2
Step 5b: Review II
Now you need to review the entire
chapter to be sure that you’re ready
to be tested. Follow these steps:
• Read the Chapter Summary. The
notes in your outline should be fairly
similar to the learning question
answers in the summary.
• Modify your outline if necessary.
• Complete the Study Guide and check
your answers against the key in the
back of the book . You should be able
to find many of the answers in your
outline.
• Take the chapter Practice Test in
the back of the book or log on to
MyPsychLab to take an online version.
32 Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
1.5 What are the major schools of thought
in psychology? (pp. 9–13)
Behaviorists emphasize the environment as the key determinant
of behavior. Psychoanalytic theorists claim that an
individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior are determined
primarily by the unconscious—the part of the mind that one
cannot see and cannot control. Humanistic theorists focus
on the uniqueness of human beings and their capacity for
choice, personal growth, and psychological health. Cognitive
psychology focuses on mental processes such as memory,
problem solving, reasoning, decision making, language, perception,
and other forms of cognition. Evolutionary psychology
focuses on how human behaviors necessary for survival
have adapted in the face of environmental pressures over
the course of evolution. Biological psychologists look for
connections between specific behaviors (such as aggression)
and particular biological factors (such as hormone levels) to
help explain individual differences. Sociocultural psychology
emphasizes social and cultural influences on human behavior
and stresses the importance of understanding those influences
when interpreting the behavior of others.
Key Terms
behaviorism, p. 9
psychoanalysis, p. 10
humanistic psychology, p. 10
positive psychology, p. 10
cognitive psychology, p. 10
Gestalt psychology, p. 11
information-processing theory, p. 11
evolutionary psychology, p. 11
biological psychology, p. 12
neuroscience, p. 12
sociocultural approach, p. 12
1.6 What are the seven contemporary psychological
perspectives? (pp. 13–14)
Psychological perspectives are general points of view used for
explaining people’s behavior and thinking that have arisen
from the major schools of thought. The seven contemporary
perspectives include behavioral, psychoanalytic, humanistic,
cognitive, evolutionary, biological, and sociocultural. In taking
an eclectic position, psychologists use a combination of
two or more perspectives to explain a particular behavior.
Key Term
psychological perspectives, p. 13
1.7 What specialty areas exist in psychology?
(pp. 14–16)
Psychology today is highly specialized. Clinical psychologists
are members of one specialty group, a subfield
that also includes school and forensic psychologists.
Other important specialists in the field are counseling
psychologists, physiological
psychologists, experimental
psychologists, developmental psychologists, educational psychologists,
social psychologists, and industrial/organizational
(I/O) psychologists.
THINKING ABOUT THEORIES AND RESEARCH (pp. 16–18)
1.8 How do psychologists evaluate theories? (p. 16)
Psychologists evaluate theories in terms of their usefulness
rather than whether they are true or false. Useful theories
generate testable hypotheses and practical solutions to problems.
Theories possessing heuristic value are useful for stimulating
debate and research.
1.9 How will critical thinking help you evaluate
research? (pp. 17–18)
Critical thinkers are independent, able to suspend judgment,
and willing to change prior beliefs. These skills help them
evaluate claims about research. Critical thinkers also use
knowledge of research methods to evaluate research findings.
Key Term
critical thinking, p. 17
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH METHODS (pp. 18–23)
1.10 What are the pros and cons of observational
and case studies? (pp. 18–19)
In naturalistic observation, researchers observe and record
the behavior of human participants or animal subjects in a
natural setting without attempting to influence or control
it. In laboratory observation, researchers exert more control
and use more precise equipment to measure responses. The
case study is appropriate for studying people with rare
psychological or physiological disorders or brain injuries.
Disadvantages of this method include possible observer bias,
an inability to establish the cause of behavior, and lack of
generalizability.
Key Terms
descriptive research methods, p. 18
naturalistic observation, p. 18
laboratory observation, p. 18
case study, p. 19
Chapter 1 Summary 33
1.11 How do researchers design useful surveys?
(pp. 19–20)
To be useful, surveys must involve a sample that is representative
of the population to which the results will be applied.
Useful surveys also avoid wording questions and in ways
that influence respondents’ answers and employ interviewers
whose characteristics are similar to those of respondents.
Key Terms
survey, p. 19
population, p. 19
sample, p. 19
representative sample, p. 19
1.12 What are the strengths and weaknesses
of the correlational method? (pp. 20–23)
When the correlation between two variables is known, information
about one variable can be used to predict the other.
However, a correlation cannot be used to support the conclusion
that either variable causes the other.
Key Terms
correlational method, p. 20
correlation coefficient, p. 20
THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD (pp. 23–28)
1.13 How do researchers use experiments to test
causal hypotheses? (pp. 23–25)
The experimental method is the only research method that can
identify cause–effect relationships. In an experiment, an independent
variable is a condition or factor manipulated by the
researcher to determine its effect on the dependent variable. By
comparing experimental and control groups, researchers can
judge the effects of the independent variable(s) compared to
outcomes that occur naturally or in the presence of a placebo.
Key Terms
experimental method, p. 23
causal hypothesis, p. 23
variable, p. 23
independent variable, p. 24
dependent variable, p. 25
experimental group, p. 25
control group, p. 25
1.14 What are the limitations of the experimental
method? (pp. 25–28)
Several types of bias introduce confounding variables that
make it difficult to conclude that changes in the independent
variable caused changes in the dependent variable. Selection
bias occurs when there are systematic differences among
the groups before the experiment begins. The placebo effect
occurs when a person’s expectations influence the outcome
of a treatment or an experiment. Experimenter bias occurs
when the researcher’s expectations affect the outcome of the
experiment. In addition, experiments are often conducted
in unnatural settings, a factor that limits the applicability of
results beyond the experimental setting. When researchers are
interested in independent variables that cannot be manipulated
for ethical or practical reasons, they often conduct
quasi-experiments.
Key Terms
confounding variables, p. 25
selection bias, p. 26
random assignment, p. 26
placebo effect, p. 26
placebo, p. 26
experimenter bias, p. 26
double-blind technique, p. 27
quasi-experiments, p. 27
cross-cultural research, p. 27
RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS (pp. 28–30)
1.15 How can participants’ characteristics
influence a study’s usefulness? (pp. 28–29)
Participant-related bias happens when researchers fail
to include underrepresented groups in their samples.
Historically, psychological researchers have relied heavily on
studies in which the primary participants were college students,
a group that includes fewer minorities and people of
limited means than the general population does. Similarly,
many studies have failed to include women. Ageism is another
participant-related issue.
Key Term
participant-related bias, p. 28
1.16 How do researchers protect human
participants’ and animals’ rights?
(pp. 29–30)
All research must conform to applicable laws and regulations.
Researchers must obtain approval from all institutions
involved in the study. Participants must give informed consent,
may not be deceived unless necessary, and, if deceived,
must be debriefed as soon as possible after they participate.
Subordinates’ participation in a study may not negatively
affect them in any way. Participants may be paid after being
fully informed about what is expected in return for payment.
Researchers must report their findings in an appropriate
forum, and results must be made available to participants.
34 Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
Answers to all the Study Guide questions are provided at the end of the book.
SECTION ONE: Chapter Review
An Introduction to Mastering the World
of Psychology (pp. 2–6)
1. The orderly, systematic procedures scientists follow in acquiring a body of
knowledge is the __________ __________.
2. The four goals of psychology are __________, __________, __________,
and __________.
3. The purpose of basic research is to seek new knowledge and advance
scientific
understanding. (true/false)
Psychology Then and Now (pp. 7–16)
4. Classify each of the following people and concepts as being associated
with (a) structuralism or (b) functionalism.
_____ (1) James
_____ (2) based on Darwin’s theory of evolution
_____ (3) stream of consciousness
_____ (4) elements of experience
_____ (5) Titchener
_____ (6) introspection
_____ (7) became known in the 19th century
5. Match each of the following individuals with his or her contribution to psychology.
_____ (1) Francis Cecil Sumner
_____ (2) Mary Whiton Calkins
_____ (3) Kenneth Clark
_____ (4) Christine Ladd-Franklin
_____ (5) Jorge Sanchez
a. first female president of APA
b. published studies on cultural bias in intelligence testing
c. first African American to receive a PhD in psychology
d. studied African American children’s self-esteem
e. had to wait 40 years to receive a PhD in psychology after completing
the degree requirements
6. Match the major figure with the appropriate school of psychology.
Answer(s) may be used more than once.
_____ (1) Freud
_____ (2) Skinner
_____ (3) Maslow
_____ (4) Wertheimer
_____ (5) Watson
_____ (6) Rogers
a. Gestalt psychology
b. humanistic psychology
c. behaviorism
d. psychoanalysis
7. Match the school of psychology with its major emphasis.
_____ (1) the scientific study of behavior
_____ (2) the perception of whole units or patterns
_____ (3) the unconscious
_____ (4) the computer as a model for human cognition
_____ (5) the uniqueness of human beings and their capacity for growth
_____ (6) the study of mental processes
a. Gestalt psychology
b. humanistic psychology
c. cognitive psychology
d. behaviorism
e. information-processing theory
f. psychoanalysis
8. Match each of the following variables with the psychological approach
that is most likely to be interested in it: (a) evolutionary psychology,
(b) biological psychology, or (c) sociocultural psychology.
_____ (1) the effects of drugs and alcohol on reaction time
_____ (2) the relationship between minority status and self-esteem
_____ (3) universal behaviors such as infants’ attachment to caregivers
_____ (4) links between hormones and aggression
_____ (5) gender role beliefs that are consistent across cultures
_____ (6) gender role beliefs that vary across cultures
9. Match the psychological perspective with its major emphasis.
_____ (1) the role of biological processes and heredity
_____ (2) the role of environmental factors
_____ (3) the role of mental processes
_____ (4) the role of the unconscious and early childhood experience
_____ (5) the importance of the individual’s own subjective experience
_____ (6) the role of social and cultural influences
_____ (7) the role of inherited tendencies that have proved adaptive in
humans
a. psychoanalytic
b. biological
c. behavioral
d. cognitive
e. humanistic
f. evolutionary
g. sociocultural
10. Write “Yes” by the statements below that represent eclecticism in
psychology.
_____ (1) Individual differences in aggression are genetic, but parents
and teachers can teach highly aggressive children to be less so.
_____ (2) Children who are highly aggressive have not received enough
punishment for their inappropriate behavior.
_____ (3) Aggressive children are probably using aggression to release
pent-up feelings of frustration.
Chapter 1 Study Guide
Chapter 1 Study Guide 35
_____ (4) Going through a trauma like parental divorce may lead to
increased aggression in children because they are experiencing
strong emotions, and their parents are likely to be too distracted
by their own problems to discipline children effectively.
11. Adjustment problems are the concern of specialists in (clinical/counseling)
psychology.
Thinking about Theories and Research
(pp. 16–18)
12. Useful theories
a. lead to practical solutions to problems.
b. provide researchers with many testable hypotheses.
c. stimulate debate and research.
d. all of the above
13. The three characteristics of critical thinkers are __________, __________,
and __________.
14. A television reporter claimed that people should stop eating cabbage
because scientists have found that it causes cancer. The first response
of a critical thinker to this report would be to
a. find out if the research was published in a prestigious journal.
b. determine whether the research was correlational or experimental in
nature.
c. find out how many people participated in the study.
d. stop eating cabbage.
Descriptive Research Methods (pp. 18–23)
15. Which descriptive research method would be best for studying each
topic?
_____ (1) attitudes toward exercise
_____ (2) gender differences in how people position themselves and their
belongings in a library
_____ (3) physiological changes that occur during sleep
_____ (4) the physical and emotional effects of a rare brain injury
a. naturalistic observation
b. laboratory observation
c. case study
d. survey
16. One problem with __________ __________ is that they often do not
generalize
to cases other than the one that is the subject of the study.
17. When conducting a survey, a researcher can compensate for a sample
that is not representative by using a sample that is very large. (true/false)
18. The correlational method is used to demonstrate cause–effect relationships.
(true/false)
19. The ____________________ is a number describing the strength and
direction of a relationship between two variables.
20. Which of the following correlation coefficients indicates the strongest
relationship?
a. +.65
b. −.78
c. .00
d. +.25
21. There is a (positive/negative) correlation between the amount of fat
people eat and their body weight.
22. A (positive/negative) correlation exists between the temperature and the
number of layers of clothing people wear.
23. The main strength of the correlational method is that it can be used to
establish cause–effect relationships. (true/false)
The Experimental Method (pp. 23–28)
24. The experimental method is the only research method that can be used
to identify cause–effect relationships between variables. (true/false)
25. In an experiment, the __________ __________ is manipulated by the
researcher, and its effects on the __________ __________ are measured
at the end of the study.
26. A researcher investigates the effectiveness of a new antidepressant drug.
She randomly assigns depressed patients to two groups. Group 1 is given
the drug, and Group 2 is given a placebo. At the end of the experiment,
the level of depression of all participants is measured as a score on a test
called a depression inventory. Match the elements of this experiment with
the appropriate term.
_____ (1) score on depression inventory
_____ (2) the antidepressant drug
_____ (3) Group 1
_____ (4) Group 2
a. experimental group
b. control group
c. independent variable
d. dependent variable
27. Random assignment is used to control for
a. experimenter bias.
b. the placebo effect.
c. selection bias.
d. participant bias.
28. The placebo effect occurs when a participant responds according to
a. the hypothesis.
b. the actual treatment.
c. how other participants behave.
d. his or her expectations.
29. A psychological researcher conducted a study in which the flight skills of
female pilots were compared to those of male pilots. This type of study is
called a(n) ________________.
Research Participants (pp. 28–30)
30. Which of the following groups has not been overrepresented as participants
in psychological research?
a. whites
b. males
c. females
d. college students
31. Psychologists are required to debrief participants thoroughly after a
research study when the study
a. violates participants’ rights to privacy.
b. deceives participants about the true purpose of the research.
c. exposes participants to unreasonable risk or harm.
d. wastes taxpayers’ money on trivial questions.
32. Investigators use animals in psychological research to learn more about
humans. (true/false)
36 Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
SECTION TWO: Who Said This?
Read each statement below and then, in the blank that follows, identify
the person mentioned in Chapter 1 who would be most likely to make
the statement.
1. I thought that behavior could be explained by analyzing the conditions
that were present before it occurs and the consequences it produces.
__________
2. I established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.
__________
3. I wrote Principles of Psychology and advocated functionalism.
__________
4. I introduced the term behaviorism. __________
5. I proposed a theory of motivation that consists of a hierarchy of needs.
__________
6. I was the first African American to earn a PhD in psychology. __________
7. I became the first female president of the American Psychological
Association. __________
8. I invented a popular form of psychotherapy called client-centered
therapy.
__________
9. I demonstrated the phi phenomenon. __________
SECTION THREE: Comprehensive
Practice Test
1. Which of the following psychological perspectives likened human mental
life to an iceberg?
a. behaviorism
b. psychoanalysis
c. humanistic psychology
d. structuralism
2. __________ is the approach to psychology that arose from the belief that
the study of the mind and consciousness was not scientific.
a. structuralism
b. behaviorism
c. humanistic psychology
d. psychoanalysis
3. The __________ perspective in psychology would explain behavior by
referring to the operation of the brain and the central nervous system.
a. evolutionary
b. structuralist
c. behavioral
d. biological
4. A __________ psychologist specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of
mental and behavioral disorders.
a. social
b. developmental
c. clinical
d. cognitive
5. “The whole is perceived as greater than the sum of its parts” is a statement
you would be most likely to hear from a __________ psychologist.
a. behavioral
b. clinical
c. Gestalt
d. developmental
6. Description, explanation, prediction, and influence of behavior and mental
processes are the __________ of psychology.
a. reasons
b. goals
c. perspectives
d. methods
7. In an experiment, a researcher would use the double-blind approach to
control for __________.
a. experimenter bias
b. independent bias
c. selection bias
d. random bias
8. The disadvantages of survey research include that
a. respondents may provide inaccurate information.
b. they can be costly and time consuming.
c. the “social desirability effect” may cause respondents to give
misleading
answers.
d. all of the above
9. A researcher who wants to establish evidence for a cause–effect
relationship
between variables should use __________.
a. naturalistic observation
b. correlation
c. the experimental method
d. the survey method
10. Which of the following psychologists is associated with the humanistic
perspective?
a. Maslow
b. Darwin
c. Watson
d. Freud
11. Researchers who are interested in the adaptive significance of behavior
are known as __________ psychologists.
a. cognitive
b. humanistic
c. evolutionary
d. psychoanalytic
12. A social psychologist would be most interested in how individuals behave
in isolated settings, such as when they are alone at home. (true/false)
13. Basic research is aimed at solving practical problems and improving the
quality of life. (true/false)
14. Watson would suggest that Freud’s psychological approach is invalid
because of Freud’s emphasis on unconscious motivation and other mental
events. (true/false)
15. In an experiment, the experimental group is exposed to all aspects of the
treatment except the independent variable. (true/false)
16. Structuralism used introspection to study the basic elements of conscious
mental experience. (true/false)
Chapter 1 Study Guide 37
17. Most psychologists believe that animal research is of little value in the
study of human mental processes and behavior. (true/false)
18. The best way to establish a cause–effect relationship between variables
is to use the case study method because that method gives a researcher
an in-depth knowledge of the subject matter from spending so much time
with just a few participants. (true/false)
19. A researcher is studying the relationship between styles of computer
keyboards and typing accuracy. In this case, the dependent variable is the
different types of computer keyboards included in the study. (true/false)
20. You would probably expect to find a negative correlation between the
number of alcoholic drinks consumed and the number of accidents a
participant
has while being tested on an experimental driving simulator.
(true/false)
SECTION FOUR: Critical Thinking
1. Consider three of the major forces in psychology: behaviorism, psychoanalysis,
and humanistic psychology. Which appeals to you most and
which least, and why?
2. Suppose you hear on the news that a researcher claims to have “proven”
that day care is harmful to infants. How could you use what you’ve learned
in this chapter about research methods to evaluate this statement?
SECTION FIVE: Application Essays
Apply your critical thinking skills with MyPsychLab Writing Assignments
Submit your answer to the following question inside the MyPsychLab Writing
Assessment program for immediate feedback.
Lamont often keeps a game window open when he is doing classwork on his
computer so that he can quickly navigate to the game whenever he gets bored.
Lately, he has started to wonder whether this is a good idea, as he often finds he
has difficulty staying on task. How could he use the steps of the scientific method
to determine whether his habit of keeping a game window open while he is doing
classwork is responsible for the problems he has with staying on task?
Jake has become very anxious ever since he started taking harder classes in his
major. The university’s counselor diagnosed him with an anxiety disorder. Compare
and contrast how the behavioral, humanistic, and cognitive approaches would view
the origins and treatment of Jake’s anxiety. Then, describe how psychologists view
each of the three approaches today.
Mother Mary, Pray for us.
Ark of the Covenant, Pray for us Helplogger
Seat of Wisdom, Pray for us.
Queen of Families, Pray for us Helplogger
